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Glenn Morris 2007-09-06 04:50:28 +00:00
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*.aux
*.cp
*.cps
*.dvi
*.fn
*.fns
*.ky
*.kys
*.log
*.op
*.ops
*.pdf
*.pg
*.pgs
*.ps
*.tmp
*.toc
*.tp
*.tps
*.vr
*.vrs
Makefile
makefile

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#### Makefile for the Emacs Manual and other documentation.
# Copyright (C) 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003,
# 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
# This file is part of GNU Emacs.
# GNU Emacs is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
# the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option)
# any later version.
# GNU Emacs is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
# but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
# MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
# GNU General Public License for more details.
# You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
# along with GNU Emacs; see the file COPYING. If not, write to
# the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor,
# Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA.
# Where to find the source code. $(srcdir) will be the man
# subdirectory of the source tree. This is
# set by the configure script's `--srcdir' option.
srcdir=@srcdir@
top_srcdir=@top_srcdir@
# Tell make where to find source files; this is needed for the makefiles.
VPATH=@srcdir@
# The makeinfo program is part of the Texinfo distribution.
# Use --force so that it generates output even if there are errors.
MAKEINFO = makeinfo --force
INFO_TARGETS = ../info/emacs ../info/ccmode ../info/cl \
../info/dired-x ../info/ediff ../info/forms ../info/gnus \
../info/message ../info/sieve ../info/pgg ../info/emacs-mime \
../info/info ../info/mh-e ../info/reftex \
../info/sc ../info/vip ../info/viper ../info/widget \
../info/efaq ../info/ada-mode ../info/autotype ../info/calc \
../info/idlwave ../info/eudc ../info/ebrowse ../info/pcl-cvs \
../info/woman ../info/eshell ../info/org ../info/url \
../info/speedbar ../info/tramp ../info/ses ../info/smtpmail \
../info/flymake ../info/newsticker ../info/rcirc ../info/erc
DVI_TARGETS = emacs.dvi calc.dvi cc-mode.dvi cl.dvi dired-x.dvi \
ediff.dvi forms.dvi gnus.dvi message.dvi emacs-mime.dvi \
gnus.dvi message.dvi sieve.dvi pgg.dvi mh-e.dvi \
reftex.dvi sc.dvi vip.dvi viper.dvi widget.dvi faq.dvi \
ada-mode.dvi autotype.dvi idlwave.dvi eudc.dvi ebrowse.dvi \
pcl-cvs.dvi woman.dvi eshell.dvi org.dvi url.dvi \
speedbar.dvi tramp.dvi ses.dvi smtpmail.dvi flymake.dvi \
newsticker.dvi emacs-xtra.dvi rcirc.dvi erc.dvi
INFOSOURCES = info.texi
# The following rule does not work with all versions of `make'.
.SUFFIXES: .texi .dvi
.texi.dvi:
texi2dvi $<
TEXI2DVI = texi2dvi
ENVADD = TEXINPUTS="$(srcdir):$(TEXINPUTS)" MAKEINFO="$(MAKEINFO) -I$(srcdir)"
EMACS_XTRA=\
$(srcdir)/arevert-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/cal-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/dired-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/picture-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/emerge-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/vc-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/vc1-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/vc2-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/fortran-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/msdog-xtra.texi
EMACSSOURCES= \
${srcdir}/emacs.texi \
${srcdir}/doclicense.texi \
${srcdir}/gpl.texi \
${srcdir}/screen.texi \
${srcdir}/commands.texi \
${srcdir}/entering.texi \
${srcdir}/basic.texi \
${srcdir}/mini.texi \
${srcdir}/m-x.texi \
${srcdir}/help.texi \
${srcdir}/mark.texi \
${srcdir}/killing.texi \
${srcdir}/regs.texi \
${srcdir}/display.texi \
${srcdir}/search.texi \
${srcdir}/fixit.texi \
${srcdir}/files.texi \
${srcdir}/buffers.texi \
${srcdir}/windows.texi \
${srcdir}/frames.texi \
${srcdir}/mule.texi \
${srcdir}/major.texi \
${srcdir}/indent.texi \
${srcdir}/text.texi \
${srcdir}/programs.texi \
${srcdir}/building.texi \
${srcdir}/maintaining.texi \
${srcdir}/abbrevs.texi \
${srcdir}/sending.texi \
${srcdir}/rmail.texi \
${srcdir}/dired.texi \
${srcdir}/calendar.texi \
${srcdir}/misc.texi \
${srcdir}/custom.texi \
${srcdir}/trouble.texi \
${srcdir}/cmdargs.texi \
${srcdir}/xresources.texi \
${srcdir}/anti.texi \
${srcdir}/macos.texi \
${srcdir}/msdog.texi \
${srcdir}/gnu.texi \
${srcdir}/glossary.texi \
${srcdir}/ack.texi \
${srcdir}/kmacro.texi \
$(EMACS_XTRA)
info: $(top_srcdir)/info $(INFO_TARGETS)
$(top_srcdir)/info:
mkdir $@
dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS)
# Note that all the Info targets build the Info files
# in srcdir. There is no provision for Info files
# to exist in the build directory.
# In a distribution of Emacs, the Info files should be up to date.
# The following target uses an explicit -o switch to work around
# the @setfilename directive in info.texi, which is required for
# the Texinfo distribution.
../info/info: ${INFOSOURCES}
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) --no-split info.texi -o $@
info.dvi: ${INFOSOURCES}
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/info.texi
../info/emacs: ${EMACSSOURCES}
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) emacs.texi
emacs.dvi: ${EMACSSOURCES}
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/emacs.texi
# This target is here so you could easily get the list of the *.texi
# files which belong to the Emacs manual (as opposed to the separate
# manuals for CL, CC Mode, Ebrowse, etc.). With this target, you can
# say things like "grep foo `make emacsman`".
emacsman:
@echo $(EMACSSOURCES)
../info/ccmode: cc-mode.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) cc-mode.texi
cc-mode.dvi: cc-mode.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/cc-mode.texi
../info/ada-mode: ada-mode.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) ada-mode.texi
ada-mode.dvi: ada-mode.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/ada-mode.texi
../info/pcl-cvs: pcl-cvs.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) pcl-cvs.texi
pcl-cvs.dvi: pcl-cvs.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/pcl-cvs.texi
../info/eshell: eshell.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) eshell.texi
eshell.dvi: eshell.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/eshell.texi
../info/cl: cl.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) cl.texi
cl.dvi: cl.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/cl.texi
../info/dired-x: dired-x.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) dired-x.texi
dired-x.dvi: dired-x.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/dired-x.texi
../info/ediff: ediff.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) ediff.texi
ediff.dvi: ediff.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/ediff.texi
emacs-xtra.dvi: emacs-xtra.texi $(EMACS_XTRA)
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/emacs-xtra.texi
../info/forms: forms.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) forms.texi
forms.dvi: forms.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/forms.texi
# gnus/message/emacs-mime/sieve/pgg are part of Gnus:
../info/gnus: gnus.texi gnus-faq.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) gnus.texi
gnus.dvi: gnus.texi gnus-faq.texi
sed -e '/@iflatex/,/@end iflatex/d' ${srcdir}/gnus.texi > gnustmp.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) gnustmp.texi
cp gnustmp.dvi $*.dvi
rm gnustmp.*
../info/message: message.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) message.texi
message.dvi: message.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/message.texi
../info/sieve: sieve.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) sieve.texi
sieve.dvi: sieve.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/sieve.texi
../info/emacs-mime: emacs-mime.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) --enable-encoding emacs-mime.texi
emacs-mime.dvi: emacs-mime.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/emacs-mime.texi
../info/pgg: pgg.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) pgg.texi
pgg.dvi: pgg.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/pgg.texi
../info/mh-e: mh-e.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) mh-e.texi
mh-e.dvi: mh-e.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/mh-e.texi
../info/reftex: reftex.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) reftex.texi
reftex.dvi: reftex.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/reftex.texi
../info/sc: sc.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) sc.texi
sc.dvi: sc.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/sc.texi
../info/vip: vip.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) vip.texi
vip.dvi: vip.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/vip.texi
../info/viper: viper.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) viper.texi
viper.dvi: viper.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/viper.texi
../info/widget: widget.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) widget.texi
widget.dvi: widget.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/widget.texi
../info/efaq: faq.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) faq.texi
faq.dvi: faq.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/faq.texi
../etc/GNU: gnu1.texi gnu.texi
cd $(srcdir) && makeinfo --no-headers -o ../etc/GNU gnu1.texi
../info/autotype: autotype.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) autotype.texi
autotype.dvi: autotype.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/autotype.texi
../info/calc: calc.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) calc.texi
calc.dvi: calc.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/calc.texi
# This is produced with --no-split to avoid making files whose
# names clash on DOS 8+3 filesystems
../info/idlwave: idlwave.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) --no-split idlwave.texi
idlwave.dvi: idlwave.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/idlwave.texi
../info/eudc: eudc.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) eudc.texi
eudc.dvi: eudc.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/eudc.texi
../info/ebrowse: ebrowse.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) ebrowse.texi
ebrowse.dvi: ebrowse.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/ebrowse.texi
../info/woman: woman.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) woman.texi
woman.dvi: woman.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/woman.texi
../info/org: org.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) org.texi
org.dvi: org.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/org.texi
../info/url: url.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) url.texi
url.dvi: url.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/url.texi
../info/speedbar: speedbar.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) speedbar.texi
speedbar.dvi: speedbar.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/speedbar.texi
../info/tramp: tramp.texi trampver.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) -D emacs tramp.texi
tramp.dvi: tramp.texi trampver.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/tramp.texi
../info/ses: ses.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) ses.texi
ses.dvi: ses.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/ses.texi
../info/smtpmail: smtpmail.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) smtpmail.texi
smtpmail.dvi: smtpmail.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/smtpmail.texi
../info/flymake: flymake.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) flymake.texi
flymake.dvi: flymake.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/flymake.texi
../info/newsticker: newsticker.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) newsticker.texi
newsticker.dvi: newsticker.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/newsticker.texi
../info/rcirc: rcirc.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) rcirc.texi
rcirc.dvi: rcirc.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/rcirc.texi
../info/erc: erc.texi
cd $(srcdir); $(MAKEINFO) erc.texi
erc.dvi: erc.texi
$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) ${srcdir}/erc.texi
mostlyclean:
rm -f *.log *.cp *.fn *.ky *.pg *.vr core *.tp *.core gnustmp.*
clean: mostlyclean
rm -f *.dvi
distclean: clean
maintainer-clean: distclean
rm -f *.aux *.cps *.fns *.kys *.pgs *.vrs *.toc
for file in $(INFO_TARGETS); do rm -f $${file}*; done
# Formerly this directory had texindex.c and getopt.c in it
# and this makefile built them to make texindex.
# That caused trouble because this is run entirely in the source directory.
# Since we expect to get texi2dvi from elsewhere,
# it is ok to expect texindex from elsewhere also.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002, 2003,
@c 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Abbrevs
@chapter Abbrevs
@cindex abbrevs
@cindex expansion (of abbrevs)
A defined @dfn{abbrev} is a word which @dfn{expands}, if you insert
it, into some different text. Abbrevs are defined by the user to expand
in specific ways. For example, you might define @samp{foo} as an abbrev
expanding to @samp{find outer otter}. Then you could insert
@samp{find outer otter } into the buffer by typing @kbd{f o o
@key{SPC}}.
A second kind of abbreviation facility is called @dfn{dynamic abbrev
expansion}. You use dynamic abbrev expansion with an explicit command
to expand the letters in the buffer before point by looking for other
words in the buffer that start with those letters. @xref{Dynamic
Abbrevs}.
``Hippie'' expansion generalizes abbreviation expansion.
@xref{Hippie Expand, , Hippie Expansion, autotype, Features for
Automatic Typing}.
@menu
* Abbrev Concepts:: Fundamentals of defined abbrevs.
* Defining Abbrevs:: Defining an abbrev, so it will expand when typed.
* Expanding Abbrevs:: Controlling expansion: prefixes, canceling expansion.
* Editing Abbrevs:: Viewing or editing the entire list of defined abbrevs.
* Saving Abbrevs:: Saving the entire list of abbrevs for another session.
* Dynamic Abbrevs:: Abbreviations for words already in the buffer.
* Dabbrev Customization:: What is a word, for dynamic abbrevs. Case handling.
@end menu
@node Abbrev Concepts
@section Abbrev Concepts
An @dfn{abbrev} is a word which has been defined to @dfn{expand} into
a specified @dfn{expansion}. When you insert a word-separator character
following the abbrev, that expands the abbrev---replacing the abbrev
with its expansion. For example, if @samp{foo} is defined as an abbrev
expanding to @samp{find outer otter}, then you can insert @samp{find
outer otter.} into the buffer by typing @kbd{f o o .}.
@findex abbrev-mode
@vindex abbrev-mode
@cindex Abbrev mode
@cindex mode, Abbrev
Abbrevs expand only when Abbrev mode (a minor mode) is enabled.
Disabling Abbrev mode does not cause abbrev definitions to be forgotten,
but they do not expand until Abbrev mode is enabled again. The command
@kbd{M-x abbrev-mode} toggles Abbrev mode; with a numeric argument, it
turns Abbrev mode on if the argument is positive, off otherwise.
@xref{Minor Modes}. @code{abbrev-mode} is also a variable; Abbrev mode is
on when the variable is non-@code{nil}. The variable @code{abbrev-mode}
automatically becomes local to the current buffer when it is set.
Abbrevs can have @dfn{mode-specific} definitions, active only in one major
mode. Abbrevs can also have @dfn{global} definitions that are active in
all major modes. The same abbrev can have a global definition and various
mode-specific definitions for different major modes. A mode-specific
definition for the current major mode overrides a global definition.
You can define abbrevs interactively during the editing session. You
can also save lists of abbrev definitions in files for use in later
sessions. Some users keep extensive lists of abbrevs that they load
in every session.
@node Defining Abbrevs
@section Defining Abbrevs
@table @kbd
@item C-x a g
Define an abbrev, using one or more words before point as its expansion
(@code{add-global-abbrev}).
@item C-x a l
Similar, but define an abbrev specific to the current major mode
(@code{add-mode-abbrev}).
@item C-x a i g
Define a word in the buffer as an abbrev (@code{inverse-add-global-abbrev}).
@item C-x a i l
Define a word in the buffer as a mode-specific abbrev
(@code{inverse-add-mode-abbrev}).
@item M-x define-global-abbrev @key{RET} @var{abbrev} @key{RET} @var{exp} @key{RET}
Define @var{abbrev} as an abbrev expanding into @var{exp}.
@item M-x define-mode-abbrev @key{RET} @var{abbrev} @key{RET} @var{exp} @key{RET}
Define @var{abbrev} as a mode-specific abbrev expanding into @var{exp}.
@item M-x kill-all-abbrevs
Discard all abbrev definitions, leaving a blank slate.
@end table
@kindex C-x a g
@findex add-global-abbrev
The usual way to define an abbrev is to enter the text you want the
abbrev to expand to, position point after it, and type @kbd{C-x a g}
(@code{add-global-abbrev}). This reads the abbrev itself using the
minibuffer, and then defines it as an abbrev for one or more words before
point. Use a numeric argument to say how many words before point should be
taken as the expansion. For example, to define the abbrev @samp{foo} as
mentioned above, insert the text @samp{find outer otter} and then type
@kbd{C-u 3 C-x a g f o o @key{RET}}.
An argument of zero to @kbd{C-x a g} means to use the contents of the
region as the expansion of the abbrev being defined.
@kindex C-x a l
@findex add-mode-abbrev
The command @kbd{C-x a l} (@code{add-mode-abbrev}) is similar, but
defines a mode-specific abbrev. Mode-specific abbrevs are active only in a
particular major mode. @kbd{C-x a l} defines an abbrev for the major mode
in effect at the time @kbd{C-x a l} is typed. The arguments work the same
as for @kbd{C-x a g}.
@kindex C-x a i g
@findex inverse-add-global-abbrev
@kindex C-x a i l
@findex inverse-add-mode-abbrev
If the abbrev text itself is already in the buffer, you can use the
commands @kbd{C-x a i g} (@code{inverse-add-global-abbrev}) and
@kbd{C-x a i l} (@code{inverse-add-mode-abbrev}) to define it as an
abbrev by specify the expansion in the minibuffer. These commands are
called ``inverse'' because they invert the meaning of the two text
strings they use (one from the buffer and one read with the
minibuffer).
@findex define-mode-abbrev
@findex define-global-abbrev
You can define an abbrev without inserting either the abbrev or its
expansion in the buffer using the command @code{define-global-abbrev}.
It reads two arguments---the abbrev, and its expansion. The command
@code{define-mode-abbrev} does likewise for a mode-specific abbrev.
To change the definition of an abbrev, just define a new definition.
When the abbrev has a prior definition, the abbrev definition commands
ask for confirmation before replacing it.
@findex kill-all-abbrevs
To remove an abbrev definition, give a negative argument to the
abbrev definition command: @kbd{C-u - C-x a g} or @kbd{C-u - C-x a l}.
The former removes a global definition, while the latter removes a
mode-specific definition. @kbd{M-x kill-all-abbrevs} removes all
abbrev definitions, both global and local.
@node Expanding Abbrevs
@section Controlling Abbrev Expansion
When Abbrev mode is enabled, an abbrev expands whenever it is
present in the buffer just before point and you type a self-inserting
whitespace or punctuation character (@key{SPC}, comma, etc.@:). More
precisely, any character that is not a word constituent expands an
abbrev, and any word-constituent character can be part of an abbrev.
The most common way to use an abbrev is to insert it and then insert a
punctuation or whitespace character to expand it.
@vindex abbrev-all-caps
Abbrev expansion preserves case; thus, @samp{foo} expands into @samp{find
outer otter}; @samp{Foo} into @samp{Find outer otter}, and @samp{FOO} into
@samp{FIND OUTER OTTER} or @samp{Find Outer Otter} according to the
variable @code{abbrev-all-caps} (setting it non-@code{nil} specifies
@samp{FIND OUTER OTTER}).
These commands are used to control abbrev expansion:
@table @kbd
@item M-'
Separate a prefix from a following abbrev to be expanded
(@code{abbrev-prefix-mark}).
@item C-x a e
@findex expand-abbrev
Expand the abbrev before point (@code{expand-abbrev}).
This is effective even when Abbrev mode is not enabled.
@item M-x expand-region-abbrevs
Expand some or all abbrevs found in the region.
@end table
@kindex M-'
@findex abbrev-prefix-mark
You may wish to expand an abbrev and attach a prefix to the expansion;
for example, if @samp{cnst} expands into @samp{construction}, you might want
to use it to enter @samp{reconstruction}. It does not work to type
@kbd{recnst}, because that is not necessarily a defined abbrev. What
you can do is use the command @kbd{M-'} (@code{abbrev-prefix-mark}) in
between the prefix @samp{re} and the abbrev @samp{cnst}. First, insert
@samp{re}. Then type @kbd{M-'}; this inserts a hyphen in the buffer to
indicate that it has done its work. Then insert the abbrev @samp{cnst};
the buffer now contains @samp{re-cnst}. Now insert a non-word character
to expand the abbrev @samp{cnst} into @samp{construction}. This
expansion step also deletes the hyphen that indicated @kbd{M-'} had been
used. The result is the desired @samp{reconstruction}.
If you actually want the text of the abbrev in the buffer, rather than
its expansion, you can accomplish this by inserting the following
punctuation with @kbd{C-q}. Thus, @kbd{foo C-q ,} leaves @samp{foo,} in
the buffer, not expanding it.
@findex unexpand-abbrev
If you expand an abbrev by mistake, you can undo the expansion and
bring back the abbrev itself by typing @kbd{C-_} to undo (@pxref{Undo}).
This also undoes the insertion of the non-word character that expanded
the abbrev. If the result you want is the terminating non-word
character plus the unexpanded abbrev, you must reinsert the terminating
character, quoting it with @kbd{C-q}. You can also use the command
@kbd{M-x unexpand-abbrev} to cancel the last expansion without
deleting the terminating character.
@findex expand-region-abbrevs
@kbd{M-x expand-region-abbrevs} searches through the region for defined
abbrevs, and for each one found offers to replace it with its expansion.
This command is useful if you have typed in text using abbrevs but forgot
to turn on Abbrev mode first. It may also be useful together with a
special set of abbrev definitions for making several global replacements at
once. This command is effective even if Abbrev mode is not enabled.
Expanding any abbrev first runs the hook @code{pre-abbrev-expand-hook}
(@pxref{Hooks}).
@need 1500
@node Editing Abbrevs
@section Examining and Editing Abbrevs
@table @kbd
@item M-x list-abbrevs
Display a list of all abbrev definitions. With a numeric argument, list
only local abbrevs.
@item M-x edit-abbrevs
Edit a list of abbrevs; you can add, alter or remove definitions.
@end table
@findex list-abbrevs
The output from @kbd{M-x list-abbrevs} looks like this:
@example
@var{various other tables@dots{}}
(lisp-mode-abbrev-table)
"dk" 0 "define-key"
(global-abbrev-table)
"dfn" 0 "definition"
@end example
@noindent
(Some blank lines of no semantic significance, and some other abbrev
tables, have been omitted.)
A line containing a name in parentheses is the header for abbrevs in a
particular abbrev table; @code{global-abbrev-table} contains all the global
abbrevs, and the other abbrev tables that are named after major modes
contain the mode-specific abbrevs.
Within each abbrev table, each nonblank line defines one abbrev. The
word at the beginning of the line is the abbrev. The number that
follows is the number of times the abbrev has been expanded. Emacs
keeps track of this to help you see which abbrevs you actually use, so
that you can eliminate those that you don't use often. The string at
the end of the line is the expansion.
Some abbrevs are marked with @samp{(sys)}. These ``system'' abbrevs
(@pxref{Abbrevs,,, elisp, The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}) are
pre-defined by various modes, and are not saved to your abbrev file.
To disable a ``system'' abbrev, define an abbrev of the same name that
expands to itself, and save it to your abbrev file.
@findex edit-abbrevs
@kindex C-c C-c @r{(Edit Abbrevs)}
@kbd{M-x edit-abbrevs} allows you to add, change or kill abbrev
definitions by editing a list of them in an Emacs buffer. The list has
the same format described above. The buffer of abbrevs is called
@samp{*Abbrevs*}, and is in Edit-Abbrevs mode. Type @kbd{C-c C-c} in
this buffer to install the abbrev definitions as specified in the
buffer---and delete any abbrev definitions not listed.
The command @code{edit-abbrevs} is actually the same as
@code{list-abbrevs} except that it selects the buffer @samp{*Abbrevs*}
whereas @code{list-abbrevs} merely displays it in another window.
@node Saving Abbrevs
@section Saving Abbrevs
These commands allow you to keep abbrev definitions between editing
sessions.
@table @kbd
@item M-x write-abbrev-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Write a file @var{file} describing all defined abbrevs.
@item M-x read-abbrev-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Read the file @var{file} and define abbrevs as specified therein.
@item M-x quietly-read-abbrev-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Similar but do not display a message about what is going on.
@item M-x define-abbrevs
Define abbrevs from definitions in current buffer.
@item M-x insert-abbrevs
Insert all abbrevs and their expansions into current buffer.
@end table
@findex write-abbrev-file
@kbd{M-x write-abbrev-file} reads a file name using the minibuffer and
then writes a description of all current abbrev definitions into that
file. This is used to save abbrev definitions for use in a later
session. The text stored in the file is a series of Lisp expressions
that, when executed, define the same abbrevs that you currently have.
@findex read-abbrev-file
@findex quietly-read-abbrev-file
@vindex abbrev-file-name
@kbd{M-x read-abbrev-file} reads a file name using the minibuffer
and then reads the file, defining abbrevs according to the contents of
the file. The function @code{quietly-read-abbrev-file} is similar
except that it does not display a message in the echo area; you cannot
invoke it interactively, and it is used primarily in the @file{.emacs}
file. If either of these functions is called with @code{nil} as the
argument, it uses the file name specified in the variable
@code{abbrev-file-name}, which is by default @code{"~/.abbrev_defs"}.
That file is your standard abbrev definition file, and Emacs loads
abbrevs from it automatically when it starts up.
@vindex save-abbrevs
Emacs will offer to save abbrevs automatically if you have changed
any of them, whenever it offers to save all files (for @kbd{C-x s} or
@kbd{C-x C-c}). It saves them in the file specified by
@code{abbrev-file-name}. This feature can be inhibited by setting the
variable @code{save-abbrevs} to @code{nil}.
@findex insert-abbrevs
@findex define-abbrevs
The commands @kbd{M-x insert-abbrevs} and @kbd{M-x define-abbrevs} are
similar to the previous commands but work on text in an Emacs buffer.
@kbd{M-x insert-abbrevs} inserts text into the current buffer after point,
describing all current abbrev definitions; @kbd{M-x define-abbrevs} parses
the entire current buffer and defines abbrevs accordingly.
@node Dynamic Abbrevs
@section Dynamic Abbrev Expansion
The abbrev facility described above operates automatically as you
insert text, but all abbrevs must be defined explicitly. By contrast,
@dfn{dynamic abbrevs} allow the meanings of abbreviations to be
determined automatically from the contents of the buffer, but dynamic
abbrev expansion happens only when you request it explicitly.
@kindex M-/
@kindex C-M-/
@findex dabbrev-expand
@findex dabbrev-completion
@table @kbd
@item M-/
Expand the word in the buffer before point as a @dfn{dynamic abbrev},
by searching in the buffer for words starting with that abbreviation
(@code{dabbrev-expand}).
@item C-M-/
Complete the word before point as a dynamic abbrev
(@code{dabbrev-completion}).
@end table
@vindex dabbrev-limit
For example, if the buffer contains @samp{does this follow } and you
type @kbd{f o M-/}, the effect is to insert @samp{follow} because that
is the last word in the buffer that starts with @samp{fo}. A numeric
argument to @kbd{M-/} says to take the second, third, etc.@: distinct
expansion found looking backward from point. Repeating @kbd{M-/}
searches for an alternative expansion by looking farther back. After
scanning all the text before point, it searches the text after point.
The variable @code{dabbrev-limit}, if non-@code{nil}, specifies how far
away in the buffer to search for an expansion.
@vindex dabbrev-check-all-buffers
After scanning the current buffer, @kbd{M-/} normally searches other
buffers, unless you have set @code{dabbrev-check-all-buffers} to
@code{nil}.
@vindex dabbrev-ignored-buffer-regexps
For finer control over which buffers to scan, customize the variable
@code{dabbrev-ignored-buffer-regexps}. Its value is a list of regular
expressions. If a buffer's name matches any of these regular
expressions, dynamic abbrev expansion skips that buffer.
A negative argument to @kbd{M-/}, as in @kbd{C-u - M-/}, says to
search first for expansions after point, then other buffers, and
consider expansions before point only as a last resort. If you repeat
the @kbd{M-/} to look for another expansion, do not specify an
argument. Repeating @kbd{M-/} cycles through all the expansions after
point and then the expansions before point.
After you have expanded a dynamic abbrev, you can copy additional
words that follow the expansion in its original context. Simply type
@kbd{@key{SPC} M-/} for each additional word you want to copy. The
spacing and punctuation between words is copied along with the words.
The command @kbd{C-M-/} (@code{dabbrev-completion}) performs
completion of a dynamic abbrev. Instead of trying the possible
expansions one by one, it finds all of them, then inserts the text
that they have in common. If they have nothing in common, @kbd{C-M-/}
displays a list of completions, from which you can select a choice in
the usual manner. @xref{Completion}.
Dynamic abbrev expansion is completely independent of Abbrev mode; the
expansion of a word with @kbd{M-/} is completely independent of whether
it has a definition as an ordinary abbrev.
@node Dabbrev Customization
@section Customizing Dynamic Abbreviation
Normally, dynamic abbrev expansion ignores case when searching for
expansions. That is, the expansion need not agree in case with the word
you are expanding.
@vindex dabbrev-case-fold-search
This feature is controlled by the variable
@code{dabbrev-case-fold-search}. If it is @code{t}, case is ignored in
this search; if it is @code{nil}, the word and the expansion must match
in case. If the value of @code{dabbrev-case-fold-search} is
@code{case-fold-search}, which is true by default, then the variable
@code{case-fold-search} controls whether to ignore case while searching
for expansions.
@vindex dabbrev-case-replace
Normally, dynamic abbrev expansion preserves the case pattern
@emph{of the dynamic abbrev you are expanding}, by converting the
expansion to that case pattern.
@vindex dabbrev-case-fold-search
The variable @code{dabbrev-case-replace} controls whether to
preserve the case pattern of the dynamic abbrev. If it is @code{t},
the dynamic abbrev's case pattern is preserved in most cases; if it is
@code{nil}, the expansion is always copied verbatim. If the value of
@code{dabbrev-case-replace} is @code{case-replace}, which is true by
default, then the variable @code{case-replace} controls whether to
copy the expansion verbatim.
However, if the expansion contains a complex mixed case pattern, and
the dynamic abbrev matches this pattern as far as it goes, then the
expansion is always copied verbatim, regardless of those variables.
Thus, for example, if the buffer contains
@code{variableWithSillyCasePattern}, and you type @kbd{v a M-/}, it
copies the expansion verbatim including its case pattern.
@vindex dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp
The variable @code{dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp}, if non-@code{nil},
controls which characters are considered part of a word, for dynamic expansion
purposes. The regular expression must match just one character, never
two or more. The same regular expression also determines which
characters are part of an expansion. The value @code{nil} has a special
meaning: dynamic abbrevs are made of word characters, but expansions are
made of word and symbol characters.
@vindex dabbrev-abbrev-skip-leading-regexp
In shell scripts and makefiles, a variable name is sometimes prefixed
with @samp{$} and sometimes not. Major modes for this kind of text can
customize dynamic abbrev expansion to handle optional prefixes by setting
the variable @code{dabbrev-abbrev-skip-leading-regexp}. Its value
should be a regular expression that matches the optional prefix that
dynamic abbrev expression should ignore.
@ignore
arch-tag: 638e0079-9540-48ec-9166-414083e16445
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Antinews, Mac OS, X Resources, Top
@appendix Emacs 21 Antinews
For those users who live backwards in time, here is information about
downgrading to Emacs version 21.4. We hope you will enjoy the greater
simplicity that results from the absence of many Emacs @value{EMACSVER}
features.
@itemize @bullet
@item
The buffer position and line number are now displayed at the end of
the mode line, where they can be more easily seen.
@item
The mode line of the selected window is no longer displayed with a
special face. All mode lines are created equal. Meanwhile, you can
use the variable @code{mode-line-inverse-video} to control whether
mode lines are highlighted at all---@code{nil} means don't highlight
them.
@item
Clicking on a link with the left mouse button (@kbd{mouse-1}) will
always set point at the position clicked, instead of following the
link. If you want to follow the link, use the middle mouse button
(@kbd{mouse-2}).
@item
Emacs is tired of X droppings. If you drop a file or a piece of text
onto an Emacs window, nothing will happen.
@item
On an xterm, even if you enable Xterm Mouse mode, Emacs provides a
more convincing simulation of a text terminal by not responding to
mouse clicks on the mode line, header line, or display margin.
@item
For simplicity, windows always have fringes. We wouldn't want to
in-fringe anyone's windows. Likewise, horizontal scrolling always
works in the same automatic way.
@item
The horizontal-bar cursor shape has been removed.
@item
If command line arguments are given, Emacs will not display a splash
screen, so that you can immediately get on with your editing. The
command-line option @samp{--no-splash} is therefore obsolete, and has
been removed.
@item
These command line options have also been removed: @samp{--color},
@samp{--fullwidth}, @samp{--fullheight}, @samp{--fullscreen},
@samp{--no-blinking-cursor}, @samp{--no-desktop}, and @samp{-Q}.
@item
The @samp{--geometry} option applies only to the initial frame, and
the @samp{-f} option will not read arguments for interactive
functions.
@item
We have standardized on one location for the user init file: the file
named @file{.emacs} in your home directory. Emacs will not look for
the init file in @file{~/.emacs.d/init.el}. Similarly, don't try
putting @file{.emacs_SHELL} as @file{init_SHELL.sh} in
@file{~/.emacs.d}; Emacs won't find it.
@item
Emacs will not read @file{~/.abbrev_defs} automatically. If you want
to load abbrev definitions from a file, you must always do so
explicitly.
@item
When you are logged in as root, all files now give you writable
buffers, reflecting the fact that you can write any files.
@item
The maximum size of buffers and integer variables has been halved. On
32-bit machines, the maximum buffer size is now 128 megabytes.
@item
An unquoted @samp{$} in a file name is now an error, if the following
name is not recognized as an environment variable. Thus,
the file name @file{foo$bar} would probably be an error. Meanwhile,
the @code{setenv} command does not expand @samp{$} at all.
@item
If a single command accumulates too much undo information, Emacs never
discards it. If Emacs runs out of memory as a result, it will handle
this by crashing.
@item
Many commands have been removed from the menus or rearranged.
@item
The @kbd{C-h} (help) subcommands have been rearranged---especially
those that display specific files. Type @kbd{C-h C-h} to see a list
of these commands; that will show you what is different.
@item
The @kbd{C-h v} and @kbd{C-h f} commands no longer show a hyperlink to
the C source code, even if it is available. If you want to find the
source code, grep for it.
@item
The apropos commands will not accept a list of words to match, in
order to encourage you to be more specific. Also, the user option
@code{apropos-sort-by-scores} has been removed.
@item
The minibuffer prompt is now displayed using the default face.
The colon is enough to show you what part is the prompt.
@item
Minibuffer completion commands always complete the entire minibuffer
contents, just as if you had typed them at the end of the minibuffer,
no matter where point is actually located.
@item
The command @code{backward-kill-sexp} is now bound to @kbd{C-M-delete}
and @kbd{C-M-backspace}. Be careful when using these key sequences!
It may shut down your X server, or reboot your operating system.
@item
Commands to set the mark at a place away from point, including
@kbd{M-@@}, @kbd{M-h}, etc., don't do anything special when you repeat
them. In most cases, typing these commands multiple times is
equivalent to typing them once. @kbd{M-h} ignores numeric arguments.
@item
The user option @code{set-mark-command-repeat-pop} has been removed.
@item
@kbd{C-@key{SPC} C-@key{SPC}} has no special meaning--it just sets the
mark twice. Neither does @kbd{C-u C-x C-x}, which simply exchanges
point and mark like @kbd{C-x C-x}.
@item
The function @code{sentence-end} has been eliminated in favor of a
more straightforward approach: directly setting the variable
@code{sentence-end}. For example, to end each sentence with a single
space, use
@lisp
(setq sentence-end "[.?!][]\"')@}]*\\($\\|[ \t]\\)[ \t\n]*")
@end lisp
@item
The variable @code{fill-nobreak-predicate} is no longer customizable,
and it can only hold a single function.
@item
Nobreak spaces and hyphens are displayed just like normal characters,
and the user option @code{nobreak-char-display} has been removed.
@item
@kbd{C-w} in an incremental search always grabs an entire word
into the search string. More precisely, it grabs text through
the next end of a word.
@item
Yanking now preserves all text properties that were in the killed
text. The variable @code{yank-excluded-properties} has been removed.
@item
Occur mode, Info mode, and Comint-derived modes now control
fontification in their own way, and @kbd{M-x font-lock-mode} has
nothing to do with it. To control fontification in Info mode, use the
variable @code{Info-fontify}.
@item
@samp{M-x shell} is now completely standard in regard to scrolling
behavior. It no longer has the option of scrolling the input line to
the bottom of the window the way a text terminal running a shell does.
@item
The Grep package has been merged with Compilation mode. Many
grep-specific commands and user options have thus been eliminated.
Also, @kbd{M-x grep} never tries the GNU grep @samp{-H} option,
and instead silently appends @file{/dev/null} to the command line.
@item
In Dired's @kbd{!} command, @samp{*} and @samp{?} now
cause substitution of the file names wherever they appear---not
only when they are surrounded by whitespace.
@item
When a file is managed with version control, the command @kbd{C-x C-q}
(whose general meaning is to make a buffer read-only or writable) now
does so by checking the file in or out. Checking the file out makes
the buffer writable; checking it in makes the buffer read-only.
You can still use @kbd{C-x v v} to do these operations if you wish;
its meaning is unchanged. If you want to control the buffer's
read-only flag without performing any version control operation,
use @kbd{M-x toggle-read-only}.
@item
SGML mode does not handle XML syntax, and does not have indentation
support.
@item
Many Info mode commands have been removed. Incremental search in Info
searches only the current node.
@item
Many @code{etags} features for customizing parsing using regexps
have been removed.
@item
The Emacs server now runs a small C program called @file{emacsserver},
rather than trying to handle everything in Emacs Lisp. Now there can
only be one Emacs server running at a time. The @code{server-mode}
command and @code{server-name} user option have been eliminated.
@item
The @file{emacsclient} program no longer accepts the @samp{--eval},
@samp{--display} and @samp{--server-file} command line options, and
can only establish local connections using Unix domain sockets.
@item
The command @code{quail-show-key}, for showing how to input a
character, has been removed.
@item
The default value of @code{keyboard-coding-system} is always
@code{nil}, regardless of your locale settings. If you want some
other value, set it yourself.
@item
Unicode support and unification between Latin-@var{n} character sets
have been removed. Cutting and pasting X selections does not support
``extended segments'', so there are certain coding systems it cannot
handle.
@item
The input methods for Emacs are included in a separate distribution
called ``Leim.'' To use this, you must extract the Leim tar file on
top of the Emacs distribution, into the same directory, before you
build Emacs.
@item
The following input methods have been eliminated: belarusian,
bulgarian-bds, bulgarian-phonetic, chinese-sisheng, croatian, dutch,
georgian, latin-alt-postfix, latin-postfix, latin-prefix,
latvian-keyboard, lithuanian-numeric, lithuanian-keyboard,
malayalam-inscript, rfc1345, russian-computer, sgml, slovenian,
tamil-inscript ucs, ukrainian-computer, vietnamese-telex, and welsh.
@item
The following language environments have been eliminated: Belarusian,
Bulgarian, Chinese-EUC-TW, Croatian, French, Georgian, Italian,
Latin-6, Latin-7, Latvian, Lithuanian, Malayalam, Russian, Russian,
Slovenian, Swedish, Tajik, Tamil, UTF-8, Ukrainian, Ukrainian, Welsh,
and Windows-1255.
@item
The @code{code-pages} library, which contained various 8-bit coding
systems, has been removed.
@item
The Kmacro package has been replaced with a simple and elegant
keyboard macro system. Use @kbd{C-x (} to start a new keyboard macro,
@kbd{C-x )} to end the macro, and @kbd{C-x e} to execute the last
macro. Use @kbd{M-x name-last-kbd-macro} to name the most recently
defined macro.
@item
Emacs no longer displays your breakpoints in the source buffer, so you
have to remember where you left them. It can be difficult to inspect
the state of your debugged program from the command line, so Emacs
tries to demonstrate this in the GUD buffer.
@item
The Calc, CUA, Ibuffer, Ido, Password, Printing, Reveal,
Ruler-mode, SES, Table, Tramp, and URL packages have been removed.
The Benchmark, Cfengine, Conf, Dns, Flymake, Python, Thumbs, and
Wdired modes have also been removed.
@item
The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual and the Introduction to Programming in
Emacs Lisp are now distributed separately, not in the Emacs
distribution.
@item
On MS Windows, there is no longer any support for tooltips, images,
sound, different mouse pointer shapes, or pointing devices with more
than 3 buttons. If you want these features, consider switching to
another operating system. But even if you don't want these features,
you should still switch---for freedom's sake.
@item
Emacs will not use Unicode for clipboard operations on MS Windows.
@item
To keep up with decreasing computer memory capacity and disk space, many
other functions and files have been eliminated in Emacs 21.4.
@end itemize
@ignore
arch-tag: 32932bd9-46f5-41b2-8a0e-fb0cc4caeb29
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node Autorevert
@section Auto Reverting non-file Buffers
Normally Global Auto Revert Mode only reverts file buffers. There are
two ways to auto-revert certain non-file buffers: enabling Auto Revert
Mode in those buffers (using @kbd{M-x auto-revert-mode}) and setting
@code{global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers} to @code{t}. The latter
enables Auto Reverting for all types of buffers for which it is
implemented, that is, for the types of buffers listed in the menu
below.
Like file buffers, non-file buffers should normally not revert while
you are working on them, or while they contain information that might
get lost after reverting. Therefore, they do not revert if they are
``modified''. This can get tricky, because deciding when a non-file
buffer should be marked modified is usually more difficult than for
file buffers.
Another tricky detail is that, for efficiency reasons, Auto Revert
often does not try to detect all possible changes in the buffer, only
changes that are ``major'' or easy to detect. Hence, enabling
auto-reverting for a non-file buffer does not always guarantee that
all information in the buffer is up to date and does not necessarily
make manual reverts useless.
At the other extreme, certain buffers automatically auto-revert every
@code{auto-revert-interval} seconds. (This currently only applies to
the Buffer Menu.) In this case, Auto Revert does not print any
messages while reverting, even when @code{auto-revert-verbose} is
non-@code{nil}.
The details depend on the particular types of buffers and are
explained in the corresponding sections.
@menu
* Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu::
* Auto Reverting Dired::
* Supporting additional buffers::
@end menu
@node Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu
@subsection Auto Reverting the Buffer Menu
If auto-reverting of non-file buffers is enabled, the Buffer Menu
automatically reverts every @code{auto-revert-interval} seconds,
whether there is a need for it or not. (It would probably take longer
to check whether there is a need than to actually revert.)
If the Buffer Menu inappropriately gets marked modified, just revert
it manually using @kbd{g} and auto-reverting will resume. However, if
you marked certain buffers to get deleted or to be displayed, you have
to be careful, because reverting erases all marks. The fact that
adding marks sets the buffer's modified flag prevents Auto Revert from
automatically erasing the marks.
@node Auto Reverting Dired
@subsection Auto Reverting Dired buffers
Auto-reverting Dired buffers currently works on GNU or Unix style
operating systems. It may not work satisfactorily on some other
systems.
Dired buffers only auto-revert when the file list of the buffer's main
directory changes. They do not auto-revert when information about a
particular file changes or when inserted subdirectories change. To be
sure that @emph{all} listed information is up to date, you have to
manually revert using @kbd{g}, @emph{even} if auto-reverting is
enabled in the Dired buffer. Sometimes, you might get the impression
that modifying or saving files listed in the main directory actually
does cause auto-reverting. This is because making changes to a file,
or saving it, very often causes changes in the directory itself, for
instance, through backup files or auto-save files. However, this is
not guaranteed.
If the Dired buffer is marked modified and there are no changes you
want to protect, then most of the time you can make auto-reverting
resume by manually reverting the buffer using @kbd{g}. There is one
exception. If you flag or mark files, you can safely revert the
buffer. This will not erase the flags or marks (unless the marked
file has been deleted, of course). However, the buffer will stay
modified, even after reverting, and auto-reverting will not resume.
This is because, if you flag or mark files, you may be working on the
buffer and you might not want the buffer to change without warning.
If you want auto-reverting to resume in the presence of marks and
flags, mark the buffer non-modified using @kbd{M-~}. However, adding,
deleting or changing marks or flags will mark it modified again.
Remote Dired buffers are not auto-reverted. Neither are Dired buffers
for which you used shell wildcards or file arguments to list only some
of the files. @samp{*Find*} and @samp{*Locate*} buffers do not
auto-revert either.
@node Supporting additional buffers
@subsection Adding Support for Auto-Reverting additional Buffers.
This section is intended for Elisp programmers who would like to add
support for auto-reverting new types of buffers.
To support auto-reverting the buffer must first of all have a
@code{revert-buffer-function}. @xref{Definition of
revert-buffer-function,, Reverting, elisp, the Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.
In addition, it @emph{must} have a @code{buffer-stale-function}.
@defvar buffer-stale-function
The value of this variable is a function to check whether a non-file
buffer needs reverting. This should be a function with one optional
argument @var{noconfirm}. The function should return non-@code{nil}
if the buffer should be reverted. The buffer is current when this
function is called.
While this function is mainly intended for use in auto-reverting, it
could be used for other purposes as well. For instance, if
auto-reverting is not enabled, it could be used to warn the user that
the buffer needs reverting. The idea behind the @var{noconfirm}
argument is that it should be @code{t} if the buffer is going to be
reverted without asking the user and @code{nil} if the function is
just going to be used to warn the user that the buffer is out of date.
In particular, for use in auto-reverting, @var{noconfirm} is @code{t}.
If the function is only going to be used for auto-reverting, you can
ignore the @var{noconfirm} argument.
If you just want to automatically auto-revert every
@code{auto-revert-interval} seconds, use:
@example
(set (make-local-variable 'buffer-stale-function)
#'(lambda (&optional noconfirm) 'fast))
@end example
@noindent
in the buffer's mode function.
The special return value @samp{fast} tells the caller that the need
for reverting was not checked, but that reverting the buffer is fast.
It also tells Auto Revert not to print any revert messages, even if
@code{auto-revert-verbose} is non-@code{nil}. This is important, as
getting revert messages every @code{auto-revert-interval} seconds can
be very annoying. The information provided by this return value could
also be useful if the function is consulted for purposes other than
auto-reverting.
@end defvar
Once the buffer has a @code{revert-buffer-function} and a
@code{buffer-stale-function}, several problems usually remain.
The buffer will only auto-revert if it is marked unmodified. Hence,
you will have to make sure that various functions mark the buffer
modified if and only if either the buffer contains information that
might be lost by reverting or there is reason to believe that the user
might be inconvenienced by auto-reverting, because he is actively
working on the buffer. The user can always override this by manually
adjusting the modified status of the buffer. To support this, calling
the @code{revert-buffer-function} on a buffer that is marked
unmodified should always keep the buffer marked unmodified.
It is important to assure that point does not continuously jump around
as a consequence of auto-reverting. Of course, moving point might be
inevitable if the buffer radically changes.
You should make sure that the @code{revert-buffer-function} does not
print messages that unnecessarily duplicate Auto Revert's own messages
if @code{auto-revert-verbose} is @code{t} and effectively override a
@code{nil} value for @code{auto-revert-verbose}. Hence, adapting a
mode for auto-reverting often involves getting rid of such messages.
This is especially important for buffers that automatically
auto-revert every @code{auto-revert-interval} seconds.
Also, you may want to update the documentation string of
@code{global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers}.
@ifinfo
Finally, you should add a node to this chapter's menu. This node
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
Finally, you should add a section to this chapter. This section
@end ifnotinfo
should at the very least make clear whether enabling auto-reverting
for the buffer reliably assures that all information in the buffer is
completely up to date (or will be after @code{auto-revert-interval}
seconds).
@ignore
arch-tag: 2983e613-a272-45f6-9593-3010ad7f865e
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Basic, Minibuffer, Exiting, Top
@chapter Basic Editing Commands
@kindex C-h t
@findex help-with-tutorial
Here we explain the basics of how to enter text, make corrections,
and save the text in a file. If this material is new to you, we
suggest you first run the Emacs learn-by-doing tutorial, by typing
@kbd{Control-h t} inside Emacs. (@code{help-with-tutorial}).
To clear and redisplay the screen, type @kbd{C-l} (@code{recenter}).
@menu
* Inserting Text:: Inserting text by simply typing it.
* Moving Point:: Moving the cursor to the place where you want to
change something.
* Erasing:: Deleting and killing text.
* Basic Undo:: Undoing recent changes in the text.
* Files: Basic Files. Visiting, creating, and saving files.
* Help: Basic Help. Asking what a character does.
* Blank Lines:: Making and deleting blank lines.
* Continuation Lines:: How Emacs displays lines too wide for the screen.
* Position Info:: What page, line, row, or column is point on?
* Arguments:: Numeric arguments for repeating a command N times.
* Repeating:: Repeating the previous command quickly.
@end menu
@node Inserting Text
@section Inserting Text
@cindex insertion
@cindex graphic characters
Typing printing characters inserts them into the text you are
editing. It inserts them into the buffer at the cursor; more
precisely, it inserts them at @dfn{point}, but the cursor normally
shows where point is. @xref{Point}.
Insertion moves the cursor forward, and the following text moves
forward with the cursor. If the text in the buffer is @samp{FOOBAR},
with the cursor before the @samp{B}, and you type @kbd{XX}, you get
@samp{FOOXXBAR}, with the cursor still before the @samp{B}.
To @dfn{delete} text you have just inserted, use the large key
labeled @key{DEL}, @key{BACKSPACE} or @key{DELETE} which is a short
distance above the @key{RET} or @key{ENTER} key. Regardless of the
label on that key, Emacs thinks of it as @key{DEL}, and that's what we
call it in this manual. @key{DEL} is the key you normally use outside
Emacs to erase the last character that you typed.
The @key{DEL} key deletes the character @emph{before} the cursor.
As a consequence, the cursor and all the characters after it move
backwards. If you type a printing character and then type @key{DEL},
they cancel out.
On most computers, Emacs sets up @key{DEL} automatically. In some
cases, especially with text-only terminals, Emacs may guess wrong. If
the key that ought to erase the last character doesn't do it in Emacs,
see @ref{DEL Does Not Delete}.
Most PC keyboards have both a @key{BACKSPACE} key a little ways
above @key{RET} or @key{ENTER}, and a @key{DELETE} key elsewhere. On
these keyboards, Emacs tries to set up @key{BACKSPACE} as @key{DEL}.
The @key{DELETE} key deletes ``forwards'' like @kbd{C-d} (see below),
which means it deletes the character underneath the cursor (after
point).
@kindex RET
@cindex newline
To end a line and start typing a new one, type @key{RET}. (This
key may be labeled @key{RETURN} or @key{ENTER}, but in Emacs we call
it @key{RET}.) This inserts a newline character in the buffer. If
point is at the end of the line, this creates a new blank line after
it. If point is in the middle of a line, the effect is to split that
line. Typing @key{DEL} when the cursor is at the beginning of a line
deletes the preceding newline character, thus joining the line with
the one before it.
Emacs can split lines automatically when they become too long, if
you turn on a special minor mode called @dfn{Auto Fill} mode.
@xref{Filling}, for Auto Fill mode and other methods of @dfn{filling}
text.
If you prefer printing characters to replace (overwrite) existing
text, rather than shove it to the right, you should enable Overwrite
mode, a minor mode. @xref{Minor Modes}.
@cindex quoting
@kindex C-q
@findex quoted-insert
Only printing characters and @key{SPC} insert themselves in Emacs.
Other characters act as editing commands and do not insert themselves.
These include control characters, and characters with codes above 200
octal. If you need to insert one of these characters in the buffer,
you must @dfn{quote} it by typing the character @kbd{Control-q}
(@code{quoted-insert}) first. (This character's name is normally
written @kbd{C-q} for short.) There are two ways to use
@kbd{C-q}:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@kbd{C-q} followed by any non-graphic character (even @kbd{C-g})
inserts that character.
@item
@kbd{C-q} followed by a sequence of octal digits inserts the character
with the specified octal character code. You can use any number of
octal digits; any non-digit terminates the sequence. If the
terminating character is @key{RET}, it serves only to terminate the
sequence. Any other non-digit terminates the sequence and then acts
as normal input---thus, @kbd{C-q 1 0 1 B} inserts @samp{AB}.
The use of octal sequences is disabled in ordinary non-binary
Overwrite mode, to give you a convenient way to insert a digit instead
of overwriting with it.
@end itemize
@cindex 8-bit character codes
@noindent
When multibyte characters are enabled, if you specify a code in the
range 0200 through 0377 octal, @kbd{C-q} assumes that you intend to
use some ISO 8859-@var{n} character set, and converts the specified
code to the corresponding Emacs character code. @xref{Enabling
Multibyte}. You select @emph{which} of the ISO 8859 character sets to
use through your choice of language environment (@pxref{Language
Environments}).
@vindex read-quoted-char-radix
To use decimal or hexadecimal instead of octal, set the variable
@code{read-quoted-char-radix} to 10 or 16. If the radix is greater than
10, some letters starting with @kbd{a} serve as part of a character
code, just like digits.
A numeric argument tells @kbd{C-q} how many copies of the quoted
character to insert (@pxref{Arguments}).
@findex newline
@findex self-insert
Customization information: @key{DEL} in most modes runs the command
@code{delete-backward-char}; @key{RET} runs the command
@code{newline}, and self-inserting printing characters run the command
@code{self-insert}, which inserts whatever character you typed. Some
major modes rebind @key{DEL} to other commands.
@node Moving Point
@section Changing the Location of Point
@cindex arrow keys
@cindex moving point
@cindex movement
@cindex cursor motion
@cindex moving the cursor
To do more than insert characters, you have to know how to move point
(@pxref{Point}). The simplest way to do this is with arrow keys, or by
clicking the left mouse button where you want to move to.
There are also control and meta characters for cursor motion. Some
are equivalent to the arrow keys (it is faster to use these control
keys than move your hand over to the arrow keys). Others do more
sophisticated things.
@kindex C-a
@kindex C-e
@kindex C-f
@kindex C-b
@kindex C-n
@kindex C-p
@kindex M->
@kindex M-<
@kindex M-r
@kindex LEFT
@kindex RIGHT
@kindex UP
@kindex DOWN
@findex move-beginning-of-line
@findex move-end-of-line
@findex forward-char
@findex backward-char
@findex next-line
@findex previous-line
@findex beginning-of-buffer
@findex end-of-buffer
@findex goto-char
@findex goto-line
@findex move-to-window-line
@table @kbd
@item C-a
Move to the beginning of the line (@code{move-beginning-of-line}).
@item C-e
Move to the end of the line (@code{move-end-of-line}).
@item C-f
Move forward one character (@code{forward-char}). The right-arrow key
does the same thing.
@item C-b
Move backward one character (@code{backward-char}). The left-arrow
key has the same effect.
@item M-f
Move forward one word (@code{forward-word}).
@item M-b
Move backward one word (@code{backward-word}).
@item C-n
Move down one line vertically (@code{next-line}). This command
attempts to keep the horizontal position unchanged, so if you start in
the middle of one line, you move to the middle of the next. The
down-arrow key does the same thing.
@item C-p
Move up one line, vertically (@code{previous-line}). The up-arrow key
has the same effect. This command preserves position within the line,
like @kbd{C-n}.
@item M-r
Move point to left margin, vertically centered in the window
(@code{move-to-window-line}). Text does not move on the screen.
A numeric argument says which screen line to place point on, counting
downward from the top of the window (zero means the top line). A
negative argument counts lines up from the bottom (@minus{}1 means the
bottom line).
@item M-<
Move to the top of the buffer (@code{beginning-of-buffer}). With
numeric argument @var{n}, move to @var{n}/10 of the way from the top.
@xref{Arguments}, for more information on numeric arguments.@refill
@item M->
Move to the end of the buffer (@code{end-of-buffer}).
@item C-v
@itemx @key{PAGEDOWN}
@itemx @key{PRIOR}
Scroll the display one screen forward, and move point if necessary to
put it on the screen (@code{scroll-up}). This doesn't always move
point, but it is commonly used to do so. If your keyboard has a
@key{PAGEDOWN} or @key{PRIOR} key, it does the same thing.
Scrolling commands are described further in @ref{Scrolling}.
@item M-v
@itemx @key{PAGEUP}
@itemx @key{NEXT}
Scroll one screen backward, and move point if necessary to put it on
the screen (@code{scroll-down}). This doesn't always move point, but
it is commonly used to do so. If your keyboard has a @key{PAGEUP} or
@key{NEXT} key, it does the same thing.
@item M-x goto-char
Read a number @var{n} and move point to buffer position @var{n}.
Position 1 is the beginning of the buffer.
@item M-g M-g
@itemx M-g g
@itemx M-x goto-line
Read a number @var{n} and move point to the beginning of line number
@var{n}. Line 1 is the beginning of the buffer. If point is on or
just after a number in the buffer, and you type @key{RET} with the
minibuffer empty, that number is used for @var{n}.
@item C-x C-n
@findex set-goal-column
@kindex C-x C-n
Use the current column of point as the @dfn{semipermanent goal column}
for @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} (@code{set-goal-column}). When a
semipermanent goal column is in effect, those commands always try to
move to this column, or as close as possible to it, after moving
vertically. The goal column remains in effect until canceled.
@item C-u C-x C-n
Cancel the goal column. Henceforth, @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} try to
preserve the horizontal position, as usual.
@end table
@vindex track-eol
If you set the variable @code{track-eol} to a non-@code{nil} value,
then @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p}, when starting at the end of the line, move
to the end of another line. Normally, @code{track-eol} is @code{nil}.
@xref{Variables}, for how to set variables such as @code{track-eol}.
@vindex next-line-add-newlines
@kbd{C-n} normally stops at the end of the buffer when you use it on
the last line of the buffer. However, if you set the variable
@code{next-line-add-newlines} to a non-@code{nil} value, @kbd{C-n} on
the last line of a buffer creates an additional line at the end and
moves down into it.
@node Erasing
@section Erasing Text
@table @kbd
@item @key{DEL}
Delete the character before point (@code{delete-backward-char}).
@item C-d
Delete the character after point (@code{delete-char}).
@item @key{DELETE}
@itemx @key{BACKSPACE}
One of these keys, whichever is the large key above the @key{RET} or
@key{ENTER} key, deletes the character before point---it is @key{DEL}.
If @key{BACKSPACE} is @key{DEL}, and your keyboard also has @key{DELETE},
then @key{DELETE} deletes forwards, like @kbd{C-d}.
@item C-k
Kill to the end of the line (@code{kill-line}).
@item M-d
Kill forward to the end of the next word (@code{kill-word}).
@item M-@key{DEL}
Kill back to the beginning of the previous word
(@code{backward-kill-word}).
@end table
@cindex killing characters and lines
@cindex deleting characters and lines
@cindex erasing characters and lines
You already know about the @key{DEL} key which deletes the character
before point (that is, before the cursor). Another key, @kbd{Control-d}
(@kbd{C-d} for short), deletes the character after point (that is, the
character that the cursor is on). This shifts the rest of the text on
the line to the left. If you type @kbd{C-d} at the end of a line, it
joins that line with the following line.
To erase a larger amount of text, use the @kbd{C-k} key, which
erases (kills) a line at a time. If you type @kbd{C-k} at the
beginning or middle of a line, it kills all the text up to the end of
the line. If you type @kbd{C-k} at the end of a line, it joins that
line with the following line.
@xref{Killing}, for more flexible ways of killing text.
@node Basic Undo
@section Undoing Changes
Emacs records a list of changes made in the buffer text, so you can
you can undo recent changes, as far as the records go.
Usually each editing command makes a separate entry in the undo
records, but sometimes an entry covers just part of a command, and
very simple commands may be grouped.
@table @kbd
@item C-x u
Undo one entry of the undo records---usually, one command worth
(@code{undo}).
@item C-_
@itemx C-/
The same.
@end table
The command @kbd{C-x u} (or @kbd{C-_} or @kbd{C-/}) is how you undo.
Normally this command undoes the last change, and moves point back to
where it was before the change.
If you repeat @kbd{C-x u} (or its aliases), each repetition undoes
another, earlier change, back to the limit of the undo information
available. If all recorded changes have already been undone, the undo
command displays an error message and does nothing.
The undo command applies only to changes in the buffer; you can't
use it to undo mere cursor motion. However, some cursor motion
commands set the mark, so if you use these commands from time to time,
you can move back to the neighborhoods you have moved through by
popping the mark ring (@pxref{Mark Ring}).
@node Basic Files
@section Files
Text that you insert in an Emacs buffer lasts only as long as the
Emacs session. To keep any text permanently you must put it in a
@dfn{file}. Files are named units of text which are stored by the
operating system for you to retrieve later by name. To use the
contents of a file in any way, you must specify the file name. That
includes editing the file with Emacs.
Suppose there is a file named @file{test.emacs} in your home
directory. To begin editing this file in Emacs, type
@example
C-x C-f test.emacs @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
Here the file name is given as an @dfn{argument} to the command @kbd{C-x
C-f} (@code{find-file}). That command uses the @dfn{minibuffer} to
read the argument, and you type @key{RET} to terminate the argument
(@pxref{Minibuffer}).
Emacs obeys this command by @dfn{visiting} the file: it creates a
buffer, it copies the contents of the file into the buffer, and then
displays the buffer for editing. If you alter the text, you can
@dfn{save} the new text in the file by typing @kbd{C-x C-s}
(@code{save-buffer}). This copies the altered buffer contents back
into the file @file{test.emacs}, making them permanent. Until you
save, the changed text exists only inside Emacs, and the file
@file{test.emacs} is unaltered.
To create a file, just visit it with @kbd{C-x C-f} as if it already
existed. This creates an empty buffer, in which you can insert the
text you want to put in the file. Emacs actually creates the file the
first time you save this buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}.
To learn more about using files in Emacs, see @ref{Files}.
@node Basic Help
@section Help
@cindex getting help with keys
If you forget what a key does, you can find out with the Help
character, which is @kbd{C-h} (or @key{F1}, which is an alias for
@kbd{C-h}). Type @kbd{C-h k} followed by the key of interest; for
example, @kbd{C-h k C-n} tells you what @kbd{C-n} does. @kbd{C-h} is
a prefix key; @kbd{C-h k} is just one of its subcommands (the command
@code{describe-key}). The other subcommands of @kbd{C-h} provide
different kinds of help. Type @kbd{C-h} twice to get a description of
all the help facilities. @xref{Help}.
@node Blank Lines
@section Blank Lines
@cindex inserting blank lines
@cindex deleting blank lines
Here are special commands and techniques for inserting and deleting
blank lines.
@table @kbd
@item C-o
Insert one or more blank lines after the cursor (@code{open-line}).
@item C-x C-o
Delete all but one of many consecutive blank lines
(@code{delete-blank-lines}).
@end table
@kindex C-o
@kindex C-x C-o
@cindex blank lines
@findex open-line
@findex delete-blank-lines
To insert a new line of text before an existing line,
type the new line of text, followed by @key{RET}.
However, it may be easier to see what you are doing if you first make a
blank line and then insert the desired text into it. This is easy to do
using the key @kbd{C-o} (@code{open-line}), which inserts a newline
after point but leaves point in front of the newline. After @kbd{C-o},
type the text for the new line. @kbd{C-o F O O} has the same effect as
@w{@kbd{F O O @key{RET}}}, except for the final location of point.
You can make several blank lines by typing @kbd{C-o} several times, or
by giving it a numeric argument specifying how many blank lines to make.
@xref{Arguments}, for how. If you have a fill prefix, the @kbd{C-o}
command inserts the fill prefix on the new line, if typed at the
beginning of a line. @xref{Fill Prefix}.
The easy way to get rid of extra blank lines is with the command
@kbd{C-x C-o} (@code{delete-blank-lines}). @kbd{C-x C-o} in a run of
several blank lines deletes all but one of them. @kbd{C-x C-o} on a
lone blank line deletes that one. When point is on a nonblank line,
@kbd{C-x C-o} deletes all following blank lines (if any).
@node Continuation Lines
@section Continuation Lines
@cindex continuation line
@cindex wrapping
@cindex line wrapping
@cindex fringes, and continuation lines
When a text line is too long to fit in one screen line, Emacs
displays it on two or more screen lines. This is called
@dfn{continuation} or @dfn{line wrapping}. On graphical displays,
Emacs indicates line wrapping with small bent arrows in the left and
right window fringes. On text-only terminals, Emacs displays a
@samp{\} character at the right margin of a screen line if it is not
the last in its text line. This @samp{\} character says that the
following screen line is not really a new text line.
When line wrapping occurs just before a character that is wider than one
column, some columns at the end of the previous screen line may be
``empty.'' In this case, Emacs displays additional @samp{\}
characters in the ``empty'' columns before the @samp{\}
character that indicates continuation.
Continued lines can be difficult to read, since lines can break in
the middle of a word. If you prefer, you can make Emacs insert a
newline automatically when a line gets too long, by using Auto Fill
mode. Or enable Long Lines mode, which ensures that wrapping only
occurs between words. @xref{Filling}.
@cindex truncation
@cindex line truncation, and fringes
Emacs can optionally @dfn{truncate} long lines---this means
displaying just one screen line worth, and the rest of the long line
does not appear at all. @samp{$} in the last column or a small
straight arrow in the window's right fringe indicates a truncated
line.
@xref{Line Truncation}, for more about line truncation,
and other variables that control how text is displayed.
@node Position Info
@section Cursor Position Information
Here are commands to get information about the size and position of
parts of the buffer, and to count lines.
@table @kbd
@item M-x what-page
Display the page number of point, and the line number within that page.
@item M-x what-line
Display the line number of point in the whole buffer.
@item M-x line-number-mode
@itemx M-x column-number-mode
Toggle automatic display of the current line number or column number.
@xref{Optional Mode Line}.
@item M-=
Display the number of lines in the current region (@code{count-lines-region}).
@xref{Mark}, for information about the region.
@item C-x =
Display the character code of character after point, character position of
point, and column of point (@code{what-cursor-position}).
@item M-x hl-line-mode
Enable or disable highlighting of the current line. @xref{Cursor
Display}.
@item M-x size-indication-mode
Toggle automatic display of the size of the buffer.
@xref{Optional Mode Line}.
@end table
@findex what-page
@findex what-line
@cindex line number commands
@cindex location of point
@cindex cursor location
@cindex point location
@kbd{M-x what-line} displays the current line number
in the echo area. You can also see the current line number in the
mode line; see @ref{Mode Line}; but if you narrow the buffer, the
line number in the mode line is relative to the accessible portion
(@pxref{Narrowing}). By contrast, @code{what-line} shows both the
line number relative to the narrowed region and the line number
relative to the whole buffer.
@kbd{M-x what-page} counts pages from the beginning of the file, and
counts lines within the page, showing both numbers in the echo area.
@xref{Pages}.
@kindex M-=
@findex count-lines-region
Use @kbd{M-=} (@code{count-lines-region}) to displays the number of
lines in the region (@pxref{Mark}). @xref{Pages}, for the command
@kbd{C-x l} which counts the lines in the current page.
@kindex C-x =
@findex what-cursor-position
The command @kbd{C-x =} (@code{what-cursor-position}) shows what
cursor's column position, and other information about point and the
character after it. It displays a line in the echo area that looks
like this:
@smallexample
Char: c (99, #o143, #x63) point=28062 of 36168 (78%) column=53
@end smallexample
The four values after @samp{Char:} describe the character that follows
point, first by showing it and then by giving its character code in
decimal, octal and hex. For a non-@acronym{ASCII} multibyte character, these are
followed by @samp{file} and the character's representation, in hex, in
the buffer's coding system, if that coding system encodes the character
safely and with a single byte (@pxref{Coding Systems}). If the
character's encoding is longer than one byte, Emacs shows @samp{file ...}.
However, if the character displayed is in the range 0200 through
0377 octal, it may actually stand for an invalid UTF-8 byte read from
a file. In Emacs, that byte is represented as a sequence of 8-bit
characters, but all of them together display as the original invalid
byte, in octal code. In this case, @kbd{C-x =} shows @samp{part of
display ...} instead of @samp{file}.
@samp{point=} is followed by the position of point expressed as a
character count. The start of the buffer is position 1, one character
later is position 2, and so on. The next, larger, number is the total
number of characters in the buffer. Afterward in parentheses comes
the position expressed as a percentage of the total size.
@samp{column=} is followed by the horizontal position of point, in
columns from the left edge of the window.
If the buffer has been narrowed, making some of the text at the
beginning and the end temporarily inaccessible, @kbd{C-x =} displays
additional text describing the currently accessible range. For example, it
might display this:
@smallexample
Char: C (67, #o103, #x43) point=252 of 889 (28%) <231-599> column=0
@end smallexample
@noindent
where the two extra numbers give the smallest and largest character
position that point is allowed to assume. The characters between those
two positions are the accessible ones. @xref{Narrowing}.
If point is at the end of the buffer (or the end of the accessible
part), the @w{@kbd{C-x =}} output does not describe a character after
point. The output might look like this:
@smallexample
point=36169 of 36168 (EOB) column=0
@end smallexample
@cindex character set of character at point
@cindex font of character at point
@cindex text properties at point
@cindex face at point
@w{@kbd{C-u C-x =}} displays the following additional information about a
character.
@itemize @bullet
@item
The character set name, and the codes that identify the character
within that character set; @acronym{ASCII} characters are identified
as belonging to the @code{ascii} character set.
@item
The character's syntax and categories.
@item
The character's encodings, both internally in the buffer, and externally
if you were to save the file.
@item
What keys to type to input the character in the current input method
(if it supports the character).
@item
If you are running Emacs on a graphical display, the font name and
glyph code for the character. If you are running Emacs on a text-only
terminal, the code(s) sent to the terminal.
@item
The character's text properties (@pxref{Text Properties,,,
elisp, the Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}), including any non-default
faces used to display the character, and any overlays containing it
(@pxref{Overlays,,, elisp, the same manual}).
@end itemize
Here's an example showing the Latin-1 character A with grave accent,
in a buffer whose coding system is @code{iso-latin-1}, whose
terminal coding system is @code{iso-latin-1} (so the terminal actually
displays the character as @samp{@`A}), and which has font-lock-mode
(@pxref{Font Lock}) enabled:
@smallexample
character: @`A (2240, #o4300, #x8c0, U+00C0)
charset: latin-iso8859-1
(Right-Hand Part of Latin Alphabet 1@dots{}
code point: #x40
syntax: w which means: word
category: l:Latin
to input: type "`A" with latin-1-prefix
buffer code: #x81 #xC0
file code: #xC0 (encoded by coding system iso-latin-1)
display: terminal code #xC0
There are text properties here:
fontified t
@end smallexample
@node Arguments
@section Numeric Arguments
@cindex numeric arguments
@cindex prefix arguments
@cindex arguments to commands
In mathematics and computer usage, @dfn{argument} means
``data provided to a function or operation.'' You can give any Emacs
command a @dfn{numeric argument} (also called a @dfn{prefix argument}).
Some commands interpret the argument as a repetition count. For
example, @kbd{C-f} with an argument of ten moves forward ten characters
instead of one. With these commands, no argument is equivalent to an
argument of one. Negative arguments tell most such commands to move or
act in the opposite direction.
@kindex M-1
@kindex M-@t{-}
@findex digit-argument
@findex negative-argument
If your terminal keyboard has a @key{META} key (labeled @key{ALT} on
PC keyboards), the easiest way to specify a numeric argument is to
type digits and/or a minus sign while holding down the @key{META} key.
For example,
@example
M-5 C-n
@end example
@noindent
moves down five lines. The characters @kbd{Meta-1}, @kbd{Meta-2},
and so on, as well as @kbd{Meta--}, do this because they are keys bound
to commands (@code{digit-argument} and @code{negative-argument}) that
are defined to set up an argument for the next command.
@kbd{Meta--} without digits normally means @minus{}1. Digits and
@kbd{-} modified with Control, or Control and Meta, also specify numeric
arguments.
@kindex C-u
@findex universal-argument
You can also specify a numeric argument by typing @kbd{C-u}
(@code{universal-argument}) followed by the digits. The advantage of
@kbd{C-u} is that you can type the digits without modifier keys; thus,
@kbd{C-u} works on all terminals. For a negative argument, type a
minus sign after @kbd{C-u}. A minus sign without digits normally
means @minus{}1.
@kbd{C-u} alone has the special meaning of
``four times'': it multiplies the argument for the next command by
four. @kbd{C-u C-u} multiplies it by sixteen. Thus, @kbd{C-u C-u
C-f} moves forward sixteen characters. This is a good way to move
forward ``fast,'' since it moves about 1/5 of a line in the usual size
screen. Other useful combinations are @kbd{C-u C-n}, @kbd{C-u C-u
C-n} (move down a good fraction of a screen), @kbd{C-u C-u C-o} (make
``a lot'' of blank lines), and @kbd{C-u C-k} (kill four lines).
Some commands care whether there is an argument, but ignore its
value. For example, the command @kbd{M-q} (@code{fill-paragraph})
fills text; with an argument, it justifies the text as well.
(@xref{Filling}, for more information on @kbd{M-q}.) Plain @kbd{C-u}
is a handy way of providing an argument for such commands.
Some commands use the value of the argument as a repeat count, but do
something peculiar when there is no argument. For example, the command
@kbd{C-k} (@code{kill-line}) with argument @var{n} kills @var{n} lines,
including their terminating newlines. But @kbd{C-k} with no argument is
special: it kills the text up to the next newline, or, if point is right at
the end of the line, it kills the newline itself. Thus, two @kbd{C-k}
commands with no arguments can kill a nonblank line, just like @kbd{C-k}
with an argument of one. (@xref{Killing}, for more information on
@kbd{C-k}.)
A few commands treat a plain @kbd{C-u} differently from an ordinary
argument. A few others may treat an argument of just a minus sign
differently from an argument of @minus{}1. These unusual cases are
described when they come up; they exist to make an individual command
more convenient, and they are documented in that command's
documentation string.
You can use a numeric argument before a self-inserting character to
insert multiple copies of it. This is straightforward when the
character is not a digit; for example, @kbd{C-u 6 4 a} inserts 64
copies of the character @samp{a}. But this does not work for
inserting digits; @kbd{C-u 6 4 1} specifies an argument of 641. You
can separate the argument from the digit to insert with another
@kbd{C-u}; for example, @kbd{C-u 6 4 C-u 1} does insert 64 copies of
the character @samp{1}.
We use the term ``prefix argument'' as well as ``numeric argument,''
to emphasize that you type these argument before the command, and to
distinguish them from minibuffer arguments that come after the
command.
@node Repeating
@section Repeating a Command
@cindex repeating a command
Many simple commands, such as those invoked with a single key or
with @kbd{M-x @var{command-name} @key{RET}}, can be repeated by
invoking them with a numeric argument that serves as a repeat count
(@pxref{Arguments}). However, if the command you want to repeat
prompts for input, or uses a numeric argument in another way, that
method won't work.
@kindex C-x z
@findex repeat
The command @kbd{C-x z} (@code{repeat}) provides another way to repeat
an Emacs command many times. This command repeats the previous Emacs
command, whatever that was. Repeating a command uses the same arguments
that were used before; it does not read new arguments each time.
To repeat the command more than once, type additional @kbd{z}'s: each
@kbd{z} repeats the command one more time. Repetition ends when you
type a character other than @kbd{z}, or press a mouse button.
For example, suppose you type @kbd{C-u 2 0 C-d} to delete 20
characters. You can repeat that command (including its argument) three
additional times, to delete a total of 80 characters, by typing @kbd{C-x
z z z}. The first @kbd{C-x z} repeats the command once, and each
subsequent @kbd{z} repeats it once again.
@ignore
arch-tag: cda8952a-c439-41c1-aecf-4bc0d6482956
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Buffers, Windows, Files, Top
@chapter Using Multiple Buffers
@cindex buffers
The text you are editing in Emacs resides in an object called a
@dfn{buffer}. Each time you visit a file, a buffer is created to hold the
file's text. Each time you invoke Dired, a buffer is created to hold the
directory listing. If you send a message with @kbd{C-x m}, a buffer named
@samp{*mail*} is used to hold the text of the message. When you ask for a
command's documentation, that appears in a buffer called @samp{*Help*}.
@cindex selected buffer
@cindex current buffer
At any time, one and only one buffer is @dfn{current}. It is also
called the @dfn{selected buffer}. Often we say that a command operates on
``the buffer'' as if there were only one; but really this means that the
command operates on the current buffer (most commands do).
When Emacs has multiple windows, each window has its own chosen
buffer and displays it; at any time, only one of the windows is
selected, and its chosen buffer is the current buffer. Each window's
mode line normally displays the name of the window's chosen buffer
(@pxref{Windows}).
Each buffer has a name, which can be of any length, and you can select
any buffer by giving its name. Most buffers are made by visiting files,
and their names are derived from the files' names. But you can also create
an empty buffer with any name you want. A newly started Emacs has a buffer
named @samp{*scratch*} which can be used for evaluating Lisp expressions in
Emacs. The distinction between upper and lower case matters in buffer
names.
Each buffer records individually what file it is visiting, whether it is
modified, and what major mode and minor modes are in effect in it
(@pxref{Major Modes}). Any Emacs variable can be made @dfn{local to} a
particular buffer, meaning its value in that buffer can be different from
the value in other buffers. @xref{Locals}.
@cindex buffer size, maximum
A buffer's size cannot be larger than some maximum, which is defined
by the largest buffer position representable by the @dfn{Emacs integer}
data type. This is because Emacs tracks buffer positions using that
data type. For 32-bit machines, the largest buffer size is 256
megabytes.
@menu
* Select Buffer:: Creating a new buffer or reselecting an old one.
* List Buffers:: Getting a list of buffers that exist.
* Misc Buffer:: Renaming; changing read-onlyness; copying text.
* Kill Buffer:: Killing buffers you no longer need.
* Several Buffers:: How to go through the list of all buffers
and operate variously on several of them.
* Indirect Buffers:: An indirect buffer shares the text of another buffer.
* Buffer Convenience:: Convenience and customization features for
buffer handling.
@end menu
@node Select Buffer
@section Creating and Selecting Buffers
@cindex change buffers
@cindex switch buffers
@table @kbd
@item C-x b @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Select or create a buffer named @var{buffer} (@code{switch-to-buffer}).
@item C-x 4 b @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Similar, but select @var{buffer} in another window
(@code{switch-to-buffer-other-window}).
@item C-x 5 b @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Similar, but select @var{buffer} in a separate frame
(@code{switch-to-buffer-other-frame}).
@item C-x @key{LEFT}
Select the previous buffer in the list of existing buffers.
@item C-x @key{RIGHT}
Select the next buffer in the list of existing buffers.
@item C-u M-g M-g
@itemx C-u M-g g
Read a number @var{n} and move to line @var{n} in the most recently
selected buffer other than the current buffer.
@end table
@kindex C-x b
@findex switch-to-buffer
To select the buffer named @var{bufname}, type @kbd{C-x b @var{bufname}
@key{RET}}. This runs the command @code{switch-to-buffer} with argument
@var{bufname}. You can use completion to enter the buffer
name (@pxref{Completion}). An empty argument to @kbd{C-x b}
specifies the buffer that was current most recently among those not
now displayed in any window.
@kindex C-x @key{LEFT}
@kindex C-x @key{RIGHT}
@findex next-buffer
@findex previous-buffer
For conveniently switching between a few buffers, use the commands
@kbd{C-x @key{LEFT}} and @kbd{C-x @key{RIGHT}}. @kbd{C-x @key{RIGHT}}
(@code{previous-buffer}) selects the previous buffer (following the order
of most recent selection in the current frame), while @kbd{C-x @key{LEFT}}
(@code{next-buffer}) moves through buffers in the reverse direction.
@kindex C-x 4 b
@findex switch-to-buffer-other-window
@vindex even-window-heights
To select a buffer in a window other than the current one, type
@kbd{C-x 4 b @var{bufname} @key{RET}}. This runs the command
@code{switch-to-buffer-other-window} which displays the buffer
@var{bufname} in another window. By default, if displaying the buffer
causes two vertically adjacent windows to be displayed, the heights of
those windows are evened out; to countermand that and preserve the
window configuration, set the variable @code{even-window-heights} to
@code{nil}.
@kindex C-x 5 b
@findex switch-to-buffer-other-frame
Similarly, @kbd{C-x 5 b @var{buffer} @key{RET}} runs the command
@code{switch-to-buffer-other-frame} which selects a buffer in another
frame.
@vindex display-buffer-reuse-frames
You can control how certain buffers are handled by these commands by
customizing the variables @code{special-display-buffer-names},
@code{special-display-regexps}, @code{same-window-buffer-names}, and
@code{same-window-regexps}. See @ref{Force Same Window}, and
@ref{Special Buffer Frames}, for more about these variables. In
addition, if the value of @code{display-buffer-reuse-frames} is
non-@code{nil}, and the buffer you want to switch to is already
displayed in some frame, Emacs will just raise that frame.
Most buffers are created by visiting files, or by Emacs commands that
want to display some text, but you can also create a buffer explicitly
by typing @kbd{C-x b @var{bufname} @key{RET}}. This makes a new, empty
buffer that is not visiting any file, and selects it for editing. Such
buffers are used for making notes to yourself. If you try to save one,
you are asked for the file name to use. The new buffer's major mode is
determined by the value of @code{default-major-mode} (@pxref{Major
Modes}).
Note that @kbd{C-x C-f}, and any other command for visiting a file,
can also be used to switch to an existing file-visiting buffer.
@xref{Visiting}.
@kbd{C-u M-g M-g}, that is @code{goto-line} with a prefix argument
of just @kbd{C-u}, reads a number @var{n} using the minibuffer,
selects the most recently selected buffer other than the current
buffer in another window, and then moves point to the beginning of
line number @var{n} in that buffer. This is mainly useful in a buffer
that refers to line numbers in another buffer: if point is on or just
after a number, @code{goto-line} uses that number as the default for
@var{n}. Note that prefix arguments other than just @kbd{C-u} behave
differently. @kbd{C-u 4 M-g M-g} goes to line 4 in the @emph{current}
buffer, without reading a number from the minibuffer. (Remember that
@kbd{M-g M-g} without prefix argument reads a number @var{n} and then
moves to line number @var{n} in the current buffer.)
Emacs uses buffer names that start with a space for internal purposes.
It treats these buffers specially in minor ways---for example, by
default they do not record undo information. It is best to avoid using
such buffer names yourself.
@node List Buffers
@section Listing Existing Buffers
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-b
List the existing buffers (@code{list-buffers}).
@end table
@cindex listing current buffers
@kindex C-x C-b
@findex list-buffers
To display a list of existing buffers, type @kbd{C-x C-b}. Each
line in the list shows one buffer's name, major mode and visited file.
The buffers are listed in the order that they were current; the
buffers that were current most recently come first.
@samp{*} in the first field of a line indicates the buffer is
``modified.'' If several buffers are modified, it may be time to save
some with @kbd{C-x s} (@pxref{Save Commands}). @samp{%} indicates a
read-only buffer. @samp{.} marks the current buffer. Here is an
example of a buffer list:@refill
@smallexample
CRM Buffer Size Mode File
. * .emacs 3294 Emacs-Lisp ~/.emacs
% *Help* 101 Help
search.c 86055 C ~/cvs/emacs/src/search.c
% src 20959 Dired by name ~/cvs/emacs/src/
* *mail* 42 Mail
% HELLO 1607 Fundamental ~/cvs/emacs/etc/HELLO
% NEWS 481184 Outline ~/cvs/emacs/etc/NEWS
*scratch* 191 Lisp Interaction
* *Messages* 1554 Fundamental
@end smallexample
@noindent
Note that the buffer @samp{*Help*} was made by a help request; it is
not visiting any file. The buffer @code{src} was made by Dired on the
directory @file{~/cvs/emacs/src/}. You can list only buffers that are
visiting files by giving the command a prefix argument, as in
@kbd{C-u C-x C-b}.
@code{list-buffers} omits buffers whose names begin with a space,
unless they visit files: such buffers are used internally by Emacs.
@need 2000
@node Misc Buffer
@section Miscellaneous Buffer Operations
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-q
Toggle read-only status of buffer (@code{toggle-read-only}).
@item M-x rename-buffer @key{RET} @var{name} @key{RET}
Change the name of the current buffer.
@item M-x rename-uniquely
Rename the current buffer by adding @samp{<@var{number}>} to the end.
@item M-x view-buffer @key{RET} @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Scroll through buffer @var{buffer}.
@end table
@kindex C-x C-q
@vindex buffer-read-only
@cindex read-only buffer
A buffer can be @dfn{read-only}, which means that commands to change
its contents are not allowed. The mode line indicates read-only
buffers with @samp{%%} or @samp{%*} near the left margin. Read-only
buffers are usually made by subsystems such as Dired and Rmail that
have special commands to operate on the text; also by visiting a file
whose access control says you cannot write it.
@findex toggle-read-only
If you wish to make changes in a read-only buffer, use the command
@kbd{C-x C-q} (@code{toggle-read-only}). It makes a read-only buffer
writable, and makes a writable buffer read-only. This
works by setting the variable @code{buffer-read-only}, which has a local
value in each buffer and makes the buffer read-only if its value is
non-@code{nil}. If you have files under version control, you may find
it convenient to bind @kbd{C-x C-q} to @code{vc-toggle-read-only}
instead. Then, typing @kbd{C-x C-q} not only changes the read-only
flag, but it also checks the file in or out. @xref{Version
Control}.
@findex rename-buffer
@kbd{M-x rename-buffer} changes the name of the current buffer. You
specify the new name as a minibuffer argument; there is no default.
If you specify a name that is in use for some other buffer, an error
happens and no renaming is done.
@findex rename-uniquely
@kbd{M-x rename-uniquely} renames the current buffer to a similar
name with a numeric suffix added to make it both different and unique.
This command does not need an argument. It is useful for creating
multiple shell buffers: if you rename the @samp{*shell*} buffer, then
do @kbd{M-x shell} again, it makes a new shell buffer named
@samp{*shell*}; meanwhile, the old shell buffer continues to exist
under its new name. This method is also good for mail buffers,
compilation buffers, and most Emacs features that create special
buffers with particular names. (With some of these features, such as
@kbd{M-x compile}, @kbd{M-x grep} an @kbd{M-x info}, you need to
switch to some other buffer before using the command, in order for it
to make a different buffer.)
@findex view-buffer
@kbd{M-x view-buffer} is much like @kbd{M-x view-file} (@pxref{Misc
File Ops}) except that it examines an already existing Emacs buffer.
View mode provides commands for scrolling through the buffer
conveniently but not for changing it. When you exit View mode with
@kbd{q}, that switches back to the buffer (and the position) which was
previously displayed in the window. Alternatively, if you exit View
mode with @kbd{e}, the buffer and the value of point that resulted from
your perusal remain in effect.
The commands @kbd{M-x append-to-buffer} and @kbd{M-x insert-buffer}
can be used to copy text from one buffer to another. @xref{Accumulating
Text}.
@node Kill Buffer
@section Killing Buffers
@cindex killing buffers
If you continue an Emacs session for a while, you may accumulate a
large number of buffers. You may then find it convenient to @dfn{kill}
the buffers you no longer need. On most operating systems, killing a
buffer releases its space back to the operating system so that other
programs can use it. Here are some commands for killing buffers:
@table @kbd
@item C-x k @var{bufname} @key{RET}
Kill buffer @var{bufname} (@code{kill-buffer}).
@item M-x kill-some-buffers
Offer to kill each buffer, one by one.
@end table
@findex kill-buffer
@findex kill-some-buffers
@kindex C-x k
@kbd{C-x k} (@code{kill-buffer}) kills one buffer, whose name you
specify in the minibuffer. The default, used if you type just
@key{RET} in the minibuffer, is to kill the current buffer. If you
kill the current buffer, another buffer becomes current: one that was
current in the recent past but is not displayed in any window now. If
you ask to kill a file-visiting buffer that is modified (has unsaved
editing), then you must confirm with @kbd{yes} before the buffer is
killed.
The command @kbd{M-x kill-some-buffers} asks about each buffer, one by
one. An answer of @kbd{y} means to kill the buffer. Killing the current
buffer or a buffer containing unsaved changes selects a new buffer or asks
for confirmation just like @code{kill-buffer}.
The buffer menu feature (@pxref{Several Buffers}) is also convenient
for killing various buffers.
@vindex kill-buffer-hook
If you want to do something special every time a buffer is killed, you
can add hook functions to the hook @code{kill-buffer-hook} (@pxref{Hooks}).
@findex clean-buffer-list
If you run one Emacs session for a period of days, as many people do,
it can fill up with buffers that you used several days ago. The command
@kbd{M-x clean-buffer-list} is a convenient way to purge them; it kills
all the unmodified buffers that you have not used for a long time. An
ordinary buffer is killed if it has not been displayed for three days;
however, you can specify certain buffers that should never be killed
automatically, and others that should be killed if they have been unused
for a mere hour.
@cindex Midnight mode
@vindex midnight-mode
@vindex midnight-hook
You can also have this buffer purging done for you, every day at
midnight, by enabling Midnight mode. Midnight mode operates each day at
midnight; at that time, it runs @code{clean-buffer-list}, or whichever
functions you have placed in the normal hook @code{midnight-hook}
(@pxref{Hooks}).
To enable Midnight mode, use the Customization buffer to set the
variable @code{midnight-mode} to @code{t}. @xref{Easy Customization}.
@node Several Buffers
@section Operating on Several Buffers
@cindex buffer menu
The @dfn{buffer-menu} facility is like a ``Dired for buffers''; it allows
you to request operations on various Emacs buffers by editing an Emacs
buffer containing a list of them. You can save buffers, kill them
(here called @dfn{deleting} them, for consistency with Dired), or display
them.
@table @kbd
@item M-x buffer-menu
Begin editing a buffer listing all Emacs buffers.
@item M-x buffer-menu-other-window.
Similar, but do it in another window.
@end table
@findex buffer-menu
@findex buffer-menu-other-window
The command @code{buffer-menu} writes a list of all Emacs
buffers@footnote{Buffers which don't visit files and whose names begin
with a space are omitted: these are used internally by Emacs.} into the
buffer @samp{*Buffer List*}, and selects that buffer in Buffer Menu
mode.
The buffer is read-only, and can be
changed only through the special commands described in this section.
The usual Emacs cursor motion commands can be used in the @samp{*Buffer
List*} buffer. The following commands apply to the buffer described on
the current line.
@table @kbd
@item d
Request to delete (kill) the buffer, then move down. The request
shows as a @samp{D} on the line, before the buffer name. Requested
deletions take place when you type the @kbd{x} command.
@item C-d
Like @kbd{d} but move up afterwards instead of down.
@item s
Request to save the buffer. The request shows as an @samp{S} on the
line. Requested saves take place when you type the @kbd{x} command.
You may request both saving and deletion for the same buffer.
@item x
Perform previously requested deletions and saves.
@item u
Remove any request made for the current line, and move down.
@item @key{DEL}
Move to previous line and remove any request made for that line.
@end table
The @kbd{d}, @kbd{C-d}, @kbd{s} and @kbd{u} commands to add or remove
flags also move down (or up) one line. They accept a numeric argument
as a repeat count.
These commands operate immediately on the buffer listed on the current
line:
@table @kbd
@item ~
Mark the buffer ``unmodified.'' The command @kbd{~} does this
immediately when you type it.
@item %
Toggle the buffer's read-only flag. The command @kbd{%} does
this immediately when you type it.
@item t
Visit the buffer as a tags table. @xref{Select Tags Table}.
@end table
There are also commands to select another buffer or buffers:
@table @kbd
@item q
Quit the buffer menu---immediately display the most recent formerly
visible buffer in its place.
@item @key{RET}
@itemx f
Immediately select this line's buffer in place of the @samp{*Buffer
List*} buffer.
@item o
Immediately select this line's buffer in another window as if by
@kbd{C-x 4 b}, leaving @samp{*Buffer List*} visible.
@item C-o
Immediately display this line's buffer in another window, but don't
select the window.
@item 1
Immediately select this line's buffer in a full-screen window.
@item 2
Immediately set up two windows, with this line's buffer selected in
one, and the previously current buffer (aside from the buffer
@samp{*Buffer List*}) displayed in the other.
@item b
Bury the buffer listed on this line.
@item m
Mark this line's buffer to be displayed in another window if you exit
with the @kbd{v} command. The request shows as a @samp{>} at the
beginning of the line. (A single buffer may not have both a delete
request and a display request.)
@item v
Immediately select this line's buffer, and also display in other windows
any buffers previously marked with the @kbd{m} command. If you have not
marked any buffers, this command is equivalent to @kbd{1}.
@end table
There is also a command that affects the entire buffer list:
@table @kbd
@item T
Delete, or reinsert, lines for non-file buffers. This command toggles
the inclusion of such buffers in the buffer list.
@end table
What @code{buffer-menu} actually does is create and switch to a
suitable buffer, and turn on Buffer Menu mode in it. Everything else
described above is implemented by the special commands provided in
Buffer Menu mode. One consequence of this is that you can switch from
the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer to another Emacs buffer, and edit
there. You can reselect the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer later, to
perform the operations already requested, or you can kill it, or pay
no further attention to it.
The list in the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer looks exactly like the
buffer list described in @ref{List Buffers}, because they really are
the same. The only difference between @code{buffer-menu} and
@code{list-buffers} is that @code{buffer-menu} switches to the
@samp{*Buffer List*} buffer in the selected window;
@code{list-buffers} displays the same buffer in another window. If
you run @code{list-buffers} (that is, type @kbd{C-x C-b}) and select
the buffer list manually, you can use all of the commands described
here.
Normally, the buffer @samp{*Buffer List*} is not updated
automatically when buffers are created and killed; its contents are
just text. If you have created, deleted or renamed buffers, the way
to update @samp{*Buffer List*} to show what you have done is to type
@kbd{g} (@code{revert-buffer}). You can make this happen regularly
every @code{auto-revert-interval} seconds if you enable Auto Revert
mode in this buffer, as long as it is not marked modified. Global
Auto Revert mode applies to the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer only if
@code{global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers} is non-@code{nil}.
@iftex
@inforef{Autorevert,, emacs-xtra}, for details.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Autorevert, global-auto-revert-non-file-buffers}, for details.
@end ifnottex
The command @code{buffer-menu-other-window} works the same as
@code{buffer-menu}, except that it displays the buffers list in
another window.
@node Indirect Buffers
@section Indirect Buffers
@cindex indirect buffer
@cindex base buffer
An @dfn{indirect buffer} shares the text of some other buffer, which
is called the @dfn{base buffer} of the indirect buffer. In some ways it
is the analogue, for buffers, of a symbolic link between files.
@table @kbd
@findex make-indirect-buffer
@item M-x make-indirect-buffer @key{RET} @var{base-buffer} @key{RET} @var{indirect-name} @key{RET}
Create an indirect buffer named @var{indirect-name} whose base buffer
is @var{base-buffer}.
@findex clone-indirect-buffer
@item M-x clone-indirect-buffer @key{RET}
Create an indirect buffer that is a twin copy of the current buffer.
@item C-x 4 c
@kindex C-x 4 c
@findex clone-indirect-buffer-other-window
Create an indirect buffer that is a twin copy of the current buffer, and
select it in another window (@code{clone-indirect-buffer-other-window}).
@end table
The text of the indirect buffer is always identical to the text of its
base buffer; changes made by editing either one are visible immediately
in the other. But in all other respects, the indirect buffer and its
base buffer are completely separate. They have different names,
different values of point, different narrowing, different markers,
different major modes, and different local variables.
An indirect buffer cannot visit a file, but its base buffer can. If
you try to save the indirect buffer, that actually works by saving the
base buffer. Killing the base buffer effectively kills the indirect
buffer, but killing an indirect buffer has no effect on its base buffer.
One way to use indirect buffers is to display multiple views of an
outline. @xref{Outline Views}.
A quick and handy way to make an indirect buffer is with the command
@kbd{M-x clone-indirect-buffer}. It creates and selects an indirect
buffer whose base buffer is the current buffer. With a numeric
argument, it prompts for the name of the indirect buffer; otherwise it
uses the name of the current buffer, with a @samp{<@var{n}>} suffix
added. @kbd{C-x 4 c} (@code{clone-indirect-buffer-other-window})
works like @kbd{M-x clone-indirect-buffer}, but it selects the new
buffer in another window.
The more general way to make an indirect buffer is with the command
@kbd{M-x make-indirect-buffer}. It creates an indirect buffer from
buffer @var{base-buffer}, under the name @var{indirect-name}. It
prompts for both @var{base-buffer} and @var{indirect-name} using the
minibuffer.
@node Buffer Convenience
@section Convenience Features and Customization of Buffer Handling
This section describes several modes and features that make it more
convenient to switch between buffers.
@menu
* Uniquify:: Making buffer names unique with directory parts.
* Iswitchb:: Switching between buffers with substrings.
* Buffer Menus:: Configurable buffer menu.
@end menu
@node Uniquify
@subsection Making Buffer Names Unique
@cindex unique buffer names
@cindex directories in buffer names
When several buffers visit identically-named files, Emacs must give
the buffers distinct names. The usual method for making buffer names
unique adds @samp{<2>}, @samp{<3>}, etc. to the end of the buffer
names (all but one of them).
@vindex uniquify-buffer-name-style
Other methods work by adding parts of each file's directory to the
buffer name. To select one, customize the variable
@code{uniquify-buffer-name-style} (@pxref{Easy Customization}).
To begin with, the @code{forward} naming method includes part of the
file's directory name at the beginning of the buffer name; using this
method, buffers visiting the files @file{/u/rms/tmp/Makefile} and
@file{/usr/projects/zaphod/Makefile} would be named
@samp{tmp/Makefile} and @samp{zaphod/Makefile}, respectively (instead
of @samp{Makefile} and @samp{Makefile<2>}).
In contrast, the @code{post-forward} naming method would call the
buffers @samp{Makefile|tmp} and @samp{Makefile|zaphod}, and the
@code{reverse} naming method would call them @samp{Makefile\tmp} and
@samp{Makefile\zaphod}. The nontrivial difference between
@code{post-forward} and @code{reverse} occurs when just one directory
name is not enough to distinguish two files; then @code{reverse} puts
the directory names in reverse order, so that @file{/top/middle/file}
becomes @samp{file\middle\top}, while @code{post-forward} puts them in
forward order after the file name, as in @samp{file|top/middle}.
Which rule to follow for putting the directory names in the buffer
name is not very important if you are going to @emph{look} at the
buffer names before you type one. But as an experienced user, if you
know the rule, you won't have to look. And then you may find that one
rule or another is easier for you to remember and apply quickly.
@node Iswitchb
@subsection Switching Between Buffers using Substrings
@findex iswitchb-mode
@cindex Iswitchb mode
@cindex mode, Iswitchb
@kindex C-x b @r{(Iswitchb mode)}
@kindex C-x 4 b @r{(Iswitchb mode)}
@kindex C-x 5 b @r{(Iswitchb mode)}
@kindex C-x 4 C-o @r{(Iswitchb mode)}
Iswitchb global minor mode provides convenient switching between
buffers using substrings of their names. It replaces the normal
definitions of @kbd{C-x b}, @kbd{C-x 4 b}, @kbd{C-x 5 b}, and @kbd{C-x
4 C-o} with alternative commands that are somewhat ``smarter.''
When one of these commands prompts you for a buffer name, you can
type in just a substring of the name you want to choose. As you enter
the substring, Iswitchb mode continuously displays a list of buffers
that match the substring you have typed.
At any time, you can type @key{RET} to select the first buffer in
the list. So the way to select a particular buffer is to make it the
first in the list. There are two ways to do this. You can type more
of the buffer name and thus narrow down the list, excluding unwanted
buffers above the desired one. Alternatively, you can use @kbd{C-s}
and @kbd{C-r} to rotate the list until the desired buffer is first.
@key{TAB} while entering the buffer name performs completion on the
string you have entered, based on the displayed list of buffers.
To enable Iswitchb mode, type @kbd{M-x iswitchb-mode}, or customize
the variable @code{iswitchb-mode} to @code{t} (@pxref{Easy
Customization}).
@node Buffer Menus
@subsection Customizing Buffer Menus
@findex bs-show
@cindex buffer list, customizable
@table @kbd
@item M-x bs-show
Make a list of buffers similarly to @kbd{M-x list-buffers} but
customizable.
@end table
@kbd{M-x bs-show} pops up a buffer list similar to the one normally
displayed by @kbd{C-x C-b} but which you can customize. If you prefer
this to the usual buffer list, you can bind this command to @kbd{C-x
C-b}. To customize this buffer list, use the @code{bs} Custom group
(@pxref{Easy Customization}).
@findex msb-mode
@cindex mode, MSB
@cindex MSB mode
@cindex buffer menu
@findex mouse-buffer-menu
@kindex C-Down-Mouse-1
MSB global minor mode (``MSB'' stands for ``mouse select buffer'')
provides a different and customizable mouse buffer menu which you may
prefer. It replaces the bindings of @code{mouse-buffer-menu},
normally on @kbd{C-Down-Mouse-1}, and the menu bar buffer menu. You
can customize the menu in the @code{msb} Custom group.
@ignore
arch-tag: 08c43460-f4f4-4b43-9cb5-1ea9ad991695
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@c Moved here from the Emacs Lisp Reference Manual, 2005-03-26.
@node Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage
@section Customizing the Calendar and Diary
There are many customizations that you can use to make the calendar and
diary suit your personal tastes.
@menu
* Calendar Customizing:: Defaults you can set.
* Holiday Customizing:: Defining your own holidays.
* Date Display Format:: Changing the format.
* Time Display Format:: Changing the format.
* Diary Customizing:: Defaults you can set.
* Hebrew/Islamic Entries:: How to obtain them.
* Fancy Diary Display:: Enhancing the diary display, sorting entries,
using included diary files.
* Sexp Diary Entries:: Fancy things you can do.
@end menu
@node Calendar Customizing
@subsection Customizing the Calendar
@vindex calendar-holiday-marker
@vindex diary-entry-marker
The variable @code{calendar-holiday-marker} specifies how to mark a
date as being a holiday. Its value may be a single-character string
to insert next to the date, or a face name to use for displaying the
date. Likewise, the variable @code{diary-entry-marker} specifies how
to mark a date that has diary entries. The calendar creates faces
named @code{holiday-face} and @code{diary-face} for these purposes;
those symbols are the default values of these variables.
@vindex calendar-load-hook
The variable @code{calendar-load-hook} is a normal hook run when the
calendar package is first loaded (before actually starting to display
the calendar).
@vindex initial-calendar-window-hook
Starting the calendar runs the normal hook
@code{initial-calendar-window-hook}. Recomputation of the calendar
display does not run this hook. But if you leave the calendar with the
@kbd{q} command and reenter it, the hook runs again.@refill
@vindex today-visible-calendar-hook
The variable @code{today-visible-calendar-hook} is a normal hook run
after the calendar buffer has been prepared with the calendar when the
current date is visible in the window. One use of this hook is to
replace today's date with asterisks; to do that, use the hook function
@code{calendar-star-date}.
@findex calendar-star-date
@example
(add-hook 'today-visible-calendar-hook 'calendar-star-date)
@end example
@noindent
Another standard hook function marks the current date, either by
changing its face or by adding an asterisk. Here's how to use it:
@findex calendar-mark-today
@example
(add-hook 'today-visible-calendar-hook 'calendar-mark-today)
@end example
@noindent
@vindex calendar-today-marker
The variable @code{calendar-today-marker} specifies how to mark
today's date. Its value should be a single-character string to insert
next to the date or a face name to use for displaying the date. A
face named @code{calendar-today-face} is provided for this purpose;
that symbol is the default for this variable.
@vindex today-invisible-calendar-hook
@noindent
A similar normal hook, @code{today-invisible-calendar-hook} is run if
the current date is @emph{not} visible in the window.
@vindex calendar-move-hook
Each of the calendar cursor motion commands runs the hook
@code{calendar-move-hook} after it moves the cursor.
@node Holiday Customizing
@subsection Customizing the Holidays
@vindex calendar-holidays
@vindex christian-holidays
@vindex hebrew-holidays
@vindex islamic-holidays
Emacs knows about holidays defined by entries on one of several lists.
You can customize these lists of holidays to your own needs, adding or
deleting holidays. The lists of holidays that Emacs uses are for
general holidays (@code{general-holidays}), local holidays
(@code{local-holidays}), Christian holidays (@code{christian-holidays}),
Hebrew (Jewish) holidays (@code{hebrew-holidays}), Islamic (Muslim)
holidays (@code{islamic-holidays}), and other holidays
(@code{other-holidays}).
@vindex general-holidays
The general holidays are, by default, holidays common throughout the
United States. To eliminate these holidays, set @code{general-holidays}
to @code{nil}.
@vindex local-holidays
There are no default local holidays (but sites may supply some). You
can set the variable @code{local-holidays} to any list of holidays, as
described below.
@vindex all-christian-calendar-holidays
@vindex all-hebrew-calendar-holidays
@vindex all-islamic-calendar-holidays
By default, Emacs does not include all the holidays of the religions
that it knows, only those commonly found in secular calendars. For a
more extensive collection of religious holidays, you can set any (or
all) of the variables @code{all-christian-calendar-holidays},
@code{all-hebrew-calendar-holidays}, or
@code{all-islamic-calendar-holidays} to @code{t}. If you want to
eliminate the religious holidays, set any or all of the corresponding
variables @code{christian-holidays}, @code{hebrew-holidays}, and
@code{islamic-holidays} to @code{nil}.@refill
@vindex other-holidays
You can set the variable @code{other-holidays} to any list of
holidays. This list, normally empty, is intended for individual use.
@cindex holiday forms
Each of the lists (@code{general-holidays}, @code{local-holidays},
@code{christian-holidays}, @code{hebrew-holidays},
@code{islamic-holidays}, and @code{other-holidays}) is a list of
@dfn{holiday forms}, each holiday form describing a holiday (or
sometimes a list of holidays).
Here is a table of the possible kinds of holiday form. Day numbers
and month numbers count starting from 1, but ``dayname'' numbers
count Sunday as 0. The element @var{string} is always the
name of the holiday, as a string.
@table @code
@item (holiday-fixed @var{month} @var{day} @var{string})
A fixed date on the Gregorian calendar.
@item (holiday-float @var{month} @var{dayname} @var{k} @var{string})
The @var{k}th @var{dayname} in @var{month} on the Gregorian calendar
(@var{dayname}=0 for Sunday, and so on); negative @var{k} means count back
from the end of the month.
@item (holiday-hebrew @var{month} @var{day} @var{string})
A fixed date on the Hebrew calendar.
@item (holiday-islamic @var{month} @var{day} @var{string})
A fixed date on the Islamic calendar.
@item (holiday-julian @var{month} @var{day} @var{string})
A fixed date on the Julian calendar.
@item (holiday-sexp @var{sexp} @var{string})
A date calculated by the Lisp expression @var{sexp}. The expression
should use the variable @code{year} to compute and return the date of a
holiday, or @code{nil} if the holiday doesn't happen this year. The
value of @var{sexp} must represent the date as a list of the form
@code{(@var{month} @var{day} @var{year})}.
@item (if @var{condition} @var{holiday-form})
A holiday that happens only if @var{condition} is true.
@item (@var{function} @r{[}@var{args}@r{]})
A list of dates calculated by the function @var{function}, called with
arguments @var{args}.
@end table
For example, suppose you want to add Bastille Day, celebrated in
France on July 14. You can do this as follows:
@smallexample
(setq other-holidays '((holiday-fixed 7 14 "Bastille Day")))
@end smallexample
@noindent
The holiday form @code{(holiday-fixed 7 14 "Bastille Day")} specifies the
fourteenth day of the seventh month (July).
Many holidays occur on a specific day of the week, at a specific time
of month. Here is a holiday form describing Hurricane Supplication Day,
celebrated in the Virgin Islands on the fourth Monday in August:
@smallexample
(holiday-float 8 1 4 "Hurricane Supplication Day")
@end smallexample
@noindent
Here the 8 specifies August, the 1 specifies Monday (Sunday is 0,
Tuesday is 2, and so on), and the 4 specifies the fourth occurrence in
the month (1 specifies the first occurrence, 2 the second occurrence,
@minus{}1 the last occurrence, @minus{}2 the second-to-last occurrence, and
so on).
You can specify holidays that occur on fixed days of the Hebrew,
Islamic, and Julian calendars too. For example,
@smallexample
(setq other-holidays
'((holiday-hebrew 10 2 "Last day of Hanukkah")
(holiday-islamic 3 12 "Mohammed's Birthday")
(holiday-julian 4 2 "Jefferson's Birthday")))
@end smallexample
@noindent
adds the last day of Hanukkah (since the Hebrew months are numbered with
1 starting from Nisan), the Islamic feast celebrating Mohammed's
birthday (since the Islamic months are numbered from 1 starting with
Muharram), and Thomas Jefferson's birthday, which is 2 April 1743 on the
Julian calendar.
To include a holiday conditionally, use either Emacs Lisp's @code{if} or the
@code{holiday-sexp} form. For example, American presidential elections
occur on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of years
divisible by 4:
@smallexample
(holiday-sexp '(if (= 0 (% year 4))
(calendar-gregorian-from-absolute
(1+ (calendar-dayname-on-or-before
1 (+ 6 (calendar-absolute-from-gregorian
(list 11 1 year)))))))
"US Presidential Election")
@end smallexample
@noindent
or
@smallexample
(if (= 0 (% displayed-year 4))
(fixed 11
(extract-calendar-day
(calendar-gregorian-from-absolute
(1+ (calendar-dayname-on-or-before
1 (+ 6 (calendar-absolute-from-gregorian
(list 11 1 displayed-year)))))))
"US Presidential Election"))
@end smallexample
Some holidays just don't fit into any of these forms because special
calculations are involved in their determination. In such cases you
must write a Lisp function to do the calculation. To include eclipses,
for example, add @code{(eclipses)} to @code{other-holidays}
and write an Emacs Lisp function @code{eclipses} that returns a
(possibly empty) list of the relevant Gregorian dates among the range
visible in the calendar window, with descriptive strings, like this:
@smallexample
(((6 27 1991) "Lunar Eclipse") ((7 11 1991) "Solar Eclipse") ... )
@end smallexample
@node Date Display Format
@subsection Date Display Format
@vindex calendar-date-display-form
You can customize the manner of displaying dates in the diary, in mode
lines, and in messages by setting @code{calendar-date-display-form}.
This variable holds a list of expressions that can involve the variables
@code{month}, @code{day}, and @code{year}, which are all numbers in
string form, and @code{monthname} and @code{dayname}, which are both
alphabetic strings. In the American style, the default value of this
list is as follows:
@smallexample
((if dayname (concat dayname ", ")) monthname " " day ", " year)
@end smallexample
@noindent
while in the European style this value is the default:
@smallexample
((if dayname (concat dayname ", ")) day " " monthname " " year)
@end smallexample
@noindent
The ISO standard date representation is this:
@smallexample
(year "-" month "-" day)
@end smallexample
@noindent
This specifies a typical American format:
@smallexample
(month "/" day "/" (substring year -2))
@end smallexample
@node Time Display Format
@subsection Time Display Format
@vindex calendar-time-display-form
The calendar and diary by default display times of day in the
conventional American style with the hours from 1 through 12, minutes,
and either @samp{am} or @samp{pm}. If you prefer the European style,
also known in the US as military, in which the hours go from 00 to 23,
you can alter the variable @code{calendar-time-display-form}. This
variable is a list of expressions that can involve the variables
@code{12-hours}, @code{24-hours}, and @code{minutes}, which are all
numbers in string form, and @code{am-pm} and @code{time-zone}, which are
both alphabetic strings. The default value of
@code{calendar-time-display-form} is as follows:
@smallexample
(12-hours ":" minutes am-pm
(if time-zone " (") time-zone (if time-zone ")"))
@end smallexample
@noindent
Here is a value that provides European style times:
@smallexample
(24-hours ":" minutes
(if time-zone " (") time-zone (if time-zone ")"))
@end smallexample
@node Diary Customizing
@subsection Customizing the Diary
@vindex holidays-in-diary-buffer
Ordinarily, the mode line of the diary buffer window indicates any
holidays that fall on the date of the diary entries. The process of
checking for holidays can take several seconds, so including holiday
information delays the display of the diary buffer noticeably. If you'd
prefer to have a faster display of the diary buffer but without the
holiday information, set the variable @code{holidays-in-diary-buffer} to
@code{nil}.@refill
@vindex number-of-diary-entries
The variable @code{number-of-diary-entries} controls the number of
days of diary entries to be displayed at one time. It affects the
initial display when @code{view-diary-entries-initially} is @code{t}, as
well as the command @kbd{M-x diary}. For example, the default value is
1, which says to display only the current day's diary entries. If the
value is 2, both the current day's and the next day's entries are
displayed. The value can also be a vector of seven elements: for
example, if the value is @code{[0 2 2 2 2 4 1]} then no diary entries
appear on Sunday, the current date's and the next day's diary entries
appear Monday through Thursday, Friday through Monday's entries appear
on Friday, while on Saturday only that day's entries appear.
@vindex print-diary-entries-hook
@findex print-diary-entries
The variable @code{print-diary-entries-hook} is a normal hook run
after preparation of a temporary buffer containing just the diary
entries currently visible in the diary buffer. (The other, irrelevant
diary entries are really absent from the temporary buffer; in the diary
buffer, they are merely hidden.) The default value of this hook does
the printing with the command @code{lpr-buffer}. If you want to use a
different command to do the printing, just change the value of this
hook. Other uses might include, for example, rearranging the lines into
order by day and time.
@vindex diary-date-forms
You can customize the form of dates in your diary file, if neither the
standard American nor European styles suits your needs, by setting the
variable @code{diary-date-forms}. This variable is a list of patterns
for recognizing a date. Each date pattern is a list whose elements may
be regular expressions (@pxref{Regular Expressions,,, elisp, the Emacs
Lisp Reference Manual}) or the symbols @code{month}, @code{day},
@code{year}, @code{monthname}, and @code{dayname}. All these elements
serve as patterns that match certain kinds of text in the diary file.
In order for the date pattern, as a whole, to match, all of its elements
must match consecutively.
A regular expression in a date pattern matches in its usual fashion,
using the standard syntax table altered so that @samp{*} is a word
constituent.
The symbols @code{month}, @code{day}, @code{year}, @code{monthname},
and @code{dayname} match the month number, day number, year number,
month name, and day name of the date being considered. The symbols that
match numbers allow leading zeros; those that match names allow
three-letter abbreviations and capitalization. All the symbols can
match @samp{*}; since @samp{*} in a diary entry means ``any day'', ``any
month'', and so on, it should match regardless of the date being
considered.
The default value of @code{diary-date-forms} in the American style is
this:
@example
((month "/" day "[^/0-9]")
(month "/" day "/" year "[^0-9]")
(monthname " *" day "[^,0-9]")
(monthname " *" day ", *" year "[^0-9]")
(dayname "\\W"))
@end example
The date patterns in the list must be @emph{mutually exclusive} and
must not match any portion of the diary entry itself, just the date and
one character of whitespace. If, to be mutually exclusive, the pattern
must match a portion of the diary entry text---beyond the whitespace
that ends the date---then the first element of the date pattern
@emph{must} be @code{backup}. This causes the date recognizer to back
up to the beginning of the current word of the diary entry, after
finishing the match. Even if you use @code{backup}, the date pattern
must absolutely not match more than a portion of the first word of the
diary entry. The default value of @code{diary-date-forms} in the
European style is this list:
@example
((day "/" month "[^/0-9]")
(day "/" month "/" year "[^0-9]")
(backup day " *" monthname "\\W+\\<[^*0-9]")
(day " *" monthname " *" year "[^0-9]")
(dayname "\\W"))
@end example
@noindent
Notice the use of @code{backup} in the third pattern, because it needs
to match part of a word beyond the date itself to distinguish it from
the fourth pattern.
@node Hebrew/Islamic Entries
@subsection Hebrew- and Islamic-Date Diary Entries
Your diary file can have entries based on Hebrew or Islamic dates, as
well as entries based on the world-standard Gregorian calendar.
However, because recognition of such entries is time-consuming and most
people don't use them, you must explicitly enable their use. If you
want the diary to recognize Hebrew-date diary entries, for example,
you must do this:
@vindex nongregorian-diary-listing-hook
@vindex nongregorian-diary-marking-hook
@findex list-hebrew-diary-entries
@findex mark-hebrew-diary-entries
@smallexample
(add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-listing-hook 'list-hebrew-diary-entries)
(add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-marking-hook 'mark-hebrew-diary-entries)
@end smallexample
@noindent
If you want Islamic-date entries, do this:
@findex list-islamic-diary-entries
@findex mark-islamic-diary-entries
@smallexample
(add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-listing-hook 'list-islamic-diary-entries)
(add-hook 'nongregorian-diary-marking-hook 'mark-islamic-diary-entries)
@end smallexample
Hebrew- and Islamic-date diary entries have the same formats as
Gregorian-date diary entries, except that @samp{H} precedes a Hebrew
date and @samp{I} precedes an Islamic date. Moreover, because the
Hebrew and Islamic month names are not uniquely specified by the first
three letters, you may not abbreviate them. For example, a diary entry
for the Hebrew date Heshvan 25 could look like this:
@smallexample
HHeshvan 25 Happy Hebrew birthday!
@end smallexample
@noindent
and would appear in the diary for any date that corresponds to Heshvan 25
on the Hebrew calendar. And here is an Islamic-date diary entry that matches
Dhu al-Qada 25:
@smallexample
IDhu al-Qada 25 Happy Islamic birthday!
@end smallexample
As with Gregorian-date diary entries, Hebrew- and Islamic-date entries
are nonmarking if they are preceded with an ampersand (@samp{&}).
Here is a table of commands used in the calendar to create diary entries
that match the selected date and other dates that are similar in the Hebrew
or Islamic calendar:
@table @kbd
@item i h d
Add a diary entry for the Hebrew date corresponding to the selected date
(@code{insert-hebrew-diary-entry}).
@item i h m
Add a diary entry for the day of the Hebrew month corresponding to the
selected date (@code{insert-monthly-hebrew-diary-entry}). This diary
entry matches any date that has the same Hebrew day-within-month as the
selected date.
@item i h y
Add a diary entry for the day of the Hebrew year corresponding to the
selected date (@code{insert-yearly-hebrew-diary-entry}). This diary
entry matches any date which has the same Hebrew month and day-within-month
as the selected date.
@item i i d
Add a diary entry for the Islamic date corresponding to the selected date
(@code{insert-islamic-diary-entry}).
@item i i m
Add a diary entry for the day of the Islamic month corresponding to the
selected date (@code{insert-monthly-islamic-diary-entry}).
@item i i y
Add a diary entry for the day of the Islamic year corresponding to the
selected date (@code{insert-yearly-islamic-diary-entry}).
@end table
@findex insert-hebrew-diary-entry
@findex insert-monthly-hebrew-diary-entry
@findex insert-yearly-hebrew-diary-entry
@findex insert-islamic-diary-entry
@findex insert-monthly-islamic-diary-entry
@findex insert-yearly-islamic-diary-entry
These commands work much like the corresponding commands for ordinary
diary entries: they apply to the date that point is on in the calendar
window, and what they do is insert just the date portion of a diary entry
at the end of your diary file. You must then insert the rest of the
diary entry.
@node Fancy Diary Display
@subsection Fancy Diary Display
@vindex diary-display-hook
@findex simple-diary-display
Diary display works by preparing the diary buffer and then running the
hook @code{diary-display-hook}. The default value of this hook
(@code{simple-diary-display}) hides the irrelevant diary entries and
then displays the buffer. However, if you specify the hook as follows,
@cindex diary buffer
@findex fancy-diary-display
@example
(add-hook 'diary-display-hook 'fancy-diary-display)
@end example
@noindent
this enables fancy diary display. It displays diary entries and
holidays by copying them into a special buffer that exists only for the
sake of display. Copying to a separate buffer provides an opportunity
to change the displayed text to make it prettier---for example, to sort
the entries by the dates they apply to.
As with simple diary display, you can print a hard copy of the buffer
with @code{print-diary-entries}. To print a hard copy of a day-by-day
diary for a week, position point on Sunday of that week, type
@kbd{7 d}, and then do @kbd{M-x print-diary-entries}. As usual, the
inclusion of the holidays slows down the display slightly; you can speed
things up by setting the variable @code{holidays-in-diary-buffer} to
@code{nil}.
@vindex diary-list-include-blanks
Ordinarily, the fancy diary buffer does not show days for which there are
no diary entries, even if that day is a holiday. If you want such days to be
shown in the fancy diary buffer, set the variable
@code{diary-list-include-blanks} to @code{t}.@refill
@cindex sorting diary entries
If you use the fancy diary display, you can use the normal hook
@code{list-diary-entries-hook} to sort each day's diary entries by their
time of day. Here's how:
@findex sort-diary-entries
@example
(add-hook 'list-diary-entries-hook 'sort-diary-entries t)
@end example
@noindent
For each day, this sorts diary entries that begin with a recognizable
time of day according to their times. Diary entries without times come
first within each day.
Fancy diary display also has the ability to process included diary
files. This permits a group of people to share a diary file for events
that apply to all of them. Lines in the diary file of this form:
@smallexample
#include "@var{filename}"
@end smallexample
@noindent
includes the diary entries from the file @var{filename} in the fancy
diary buffer. The include mechanism is recursive, so that included files
can include other files, and so on; you must be careful not to have a
cycle of inclusions, of course. Here is how to enable the include
facility:
@vindex list-diary-entries-hook
@vindex mark-diary-entries-hook
@findex include-other-diary-files
@findex mark-included-diary-files
@smallexample
(add-hook 'list-diary-entries-hook 'include-other-diary-files)
(add-hook 'mark-diary-entries-hook 'mark-included-diary-files)
@end smallexample
The include mechanism works only with the fancy diary display, because
ordinary diary display shows the entries directly from your diary file.
@node Sexp Diary Entries
@subsection Sexp Entries and the Fancy Diary Display
@cindex sexp diary entries
Sexp diary entries allow you to do more than just have complicated
conditions under which a diary entry applies. If you use the fancy
diary display, sexp entries can generate the text of the entry depending
on the date itself. For example, an anniversary diary entry can insert
the number of years since the anniversary date into the text of the
diary entry. Thus the @samp{%d} in this diary entry:
@findex diary-anniversary
@smallexample
%%(diary-anniversary 10 31 1948) Arthur's birthday (%d years old)
@end smallexample
@noindent
gets replaced by the age, so on October 31, 1990 the entry appears in
the fancy diary buffer like this:
@smallexample
Arthur's birthday (42 years old)
@end smallexample
@noindent
If the diary file instead contains this entry:
@smallexample
%%(diary-anniversary 10 31 1948) Arthur's %d%s birthday
@end smallexample
@noindent
the entry in the fancy diary buffer for October 31, 1990 appears like this:
@smallexample
Arthur's 42nd birthday
@end smallexample
Similarly, cyclic diary entries can interpolate the number of repetitions
that have occurred:
@findex diary-cyclic
@smallexample
%%(diary-cyclic 50 1 1 1990) Renew medication (%d%s time)
@end smallexample
@noindent
looks like this:
@smallexample
Renew medication (5th time)
@end smallexample
@noindent
in the fancy diary display on September 8, 1990.
There is an early reminder diary sexp that includes its entry in the
diary not only on the date of occurrence, but also on earlier dates.
For example, if you want a reminder a week before your anniversary, you
can use
@findex diary-remind
@smallexample
%%(diary-remind '(diary-anniversary 12 22 1968) 7) Ed's anniversary
@end smallexample
@noindent
and the fancy diary will show
@smallexample
Ed's anniversary
@end smallexample
@noindent
both on December 15 and on December 22.
@findex diary-date
The function @code{diary-date} applies to dates described by a month,
day, year combination, each of which can be an integer, a list of
integers, or @code{t}. The value @code{t} means all values. For
example,
@smallexample
%%(diary-date '(10 11 12) 22 t) Rake leaves
@end smallexample
@noindent
causes the fancy diary to show
@smallexample
Rake leaves
@end smallexample
@noindent
on October 22, November 22, and December 22 of every year.
@findex diary-float
The function @code{diary-float} allows you to describe diary entries
that apply to dates like the third Friday of November, or the last
Tuesday in April. The parameters are the @var{month}, @var{dayname},
and an index @var{n}. The entry appears on the @var{n}th @var{dayname}
of @var{month}, where @var{dayname}=0 means Sunday, 1 means Monday, and
so on. If @var{n} is negative it counts backward from the end of
@var{month}. The value of @var{month} can be a list of months, a single
month, or @code{t} to specify all months. You can also use an optional
parameter @var{day} to specify the @var{n}th @var{dayname} of
@var{month} on or after/before @var{day}; the value of @var{day} defaults
to 1 if @var{n} is positive and to the last day of @var{month} if
@var{n} is negative. For example,
@smallexample
%%(diary-float t 1 -1) Pay rent
@end smallexample
@noindent
causes the fancy diary to show
@smallexample
Pay rent
@end smallexample
@noindent
on the last Monday of every month.
The generality of sexp diary entries lets you specify any diary
entry that you can describe algorithmically. A sexp diary entry
contains an expression that computes whether the entry applies to any
given date. If its value is non-@code{nil}, the entry applies to that
date; otherwise, it does not. The expression can use the variable
@code{date} to find the date being considered; its value is a list
(@var{month} @var{day} @var{year}) that refers to the Gregorian
calendar.
The sexp diary entry applies to a date when the expression's value
is non-@code{nil}, but some values have more specific meanings. If
the value is a string, that string is a description of the event which
occurs on that date. The value can also have the form
@code{(@var{mark} . @var{string})}; then @var{mark} specifies how to
mark the date in the calendar, and @var{string} is the description of
the event. If @var{mark} is a single-character string, that character
appears next to the date in the calendar. If @var{mark} is a face
name, the date is displayed in that face. If @var{mark} is
@code{nil}, that specifies no particular highlighting for the date.
Suppose you get paid on the 21st of the month if it is a weekday, and
on the Friday before if the 21st is on a weekend. Here is how to write
a sexp diary entry that matches those dates:
@smallexample
&%%(let ((dayname (calendar-day-of-week date))
(day (car (cdr date))))
(or (and (= day 21) (memq dayname '(1 2 3 4 5)))
(and (memq day '(19 20)) (= dayname 5)))
) Pay check deposited
@end smallexample
The following sexp diary entries take advantage of the ability (in the fancy
diary display) to concoct diary entries whose text varies based on the date:
@findex diary-sunrise-sunset
@findex diary-phases-of-moon
@findex diary-day-of-year
@findex diary-iso-date
@findex diary-julian-date
@findex diary-astro-day-number
@findex diary-hebrew-date
@findex diary-islamic-date
@findex diary-french-date
@findex diary-mayan-date
@table @code
@item %%(diary-sunrise-sunset)
Make a diary entry for the local times of today's sunrise and sunset.
@item %%(diary-phases-of-moon)
Make a diary entry for the phases (quarters) of the moon.
@item %%(diary-day-of-year)
Make a diary entry with today's day number in the current year and the number
of days remaining in the current year.
@item %%(diary-iso-date)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent ISO commercial date.
@item %%(diary-julian-date)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Julian calendar.
@item %%(diary-astro-day-number)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent astronomical (Julian) day number.
@item %%(diary-hebrew-date)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Hebrew calendar.
@item %%(diary-islamic-date)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Islamic calendar.
@item %%(diary-french-date)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the French Revolutionary
calendar.
@item %%(diary-mayan-date)
Make a diary entry with today's equivalent date on the Mayan calendar.
@end table
@noindent
Thus including the diary entry
@example
&%%(diary-hebrew-date)
@end example
@noindent
causes every day's diary display to contain the equivalent date on the
Hebrew calendar, if you are using the fancy diary display. (With simple
diary display, the line @samp{&%%(diary-hebrew-date)} appears in the
diary for any date, but does nothing particularly useful.)
These functions can be used to construct sexp diary entries based on
the Hebrew calendar in certain standard ways:
@cindex rosh hodesh
@findex diary-rosh-hodesh
@cindex parasha, weekly
@findex diary-parasha
@cindex candle lighting times
@findex diary-sabbath-candles
@cindex omer count
@findex diary-omer
@cindex yahrzeits
@findex diary-yahrzeit
@table @code
@item %%(diary-rosh-hodesh)
Make a diary entry that tells the occurrence and ritual announcement of each
new Hebrew month.
@item %%(diary-parasha)
Make a Saturday diary entry that tells the weekly synagogue scripture reading.
@item %%(diary-sabbath-candles)
Make a Friday diary entry that tells the @emph{local time} of Sabbath
candle lighting.
@item %%(diary-omer)
Make a diary entry that gives the omer count, when appropriate.
@item %%(diary-yahrzeit @var{month} @var{day} @var{year}) @var{name}
Make a diary entry marking the anniversary of a date of death. The date
is the @emph{Gregorian} (civil) date of death. The diary entry appears
on the proper Hebrew calendar anniversary and on the day before. (In
the European style, the order of the parameters is changed to @var{day},
@var{month}, @var{year}.)
@end table
All the functions documented above take an optional argument
@var{mark} which specifies how to mark the date in the calendar display.
If one of these functions decides that it applies to a certain date,
it returns a value that contains @var{mark}.
@ignore
arch-tag: 52cb299f-fd1f-4616-bfe6-91b988669431
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@iftex
@chapter Characters, Keys and Commands
This chapter explains the character sets used by Emacs for input
commands and for the contents of files, and the fundamental concepts of
@dfn{keys} and @dfn{commands}, whereby Emacs interprets your keyboard
and mouse input.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@raisesections
@end ifnottex
@node User Input, Keys, Screen, Top
@section Kinds of User Input
@cindex input with the keyboard
@cindex keyboard input
@cindex character set (keyboard)
@cindex @acronym{ASCII}
@cindex C-
@cindex Control
@cindex control characters
GNU Emacs is designed for use with keyboard commands because that is
the most efficient way to edit. You can do editing with the mouse, as
in other editors, and you can give commands with the menu bar and tool
bar, and scroll with the scroll bar. But if you keep on editing that
way, you won't get the benefits of Emacs. Therefore, this manual
documents primarily how to edit with the keyboard. You can force
yourself to practice using the keyboard by using the shell command
@samp{emacs -nw} to start Emacs, so that the mouse won't work.
Emacs uses an extension of the @acronym{ASCII} character set for
keyboard input; it also accepts non-character input events including
function keys and mouse button actions.
@acronym{ASCII} consists of 128 character codes. Some of these codes are
assigned graphic symbols such as @samp{a} and @samp{=}; the rest are
control characters, such as @kbd{Control-a} (usually written @kbd{C-a}
for short). @kbd{C-a} gets its name from the fact that you type it by
holding down the @key{CTRL} key while pressing @kbd{a}.
Some @acronym{ASCII} control characters have special names, and most
terminals have special keys you can type them with: for example,
@key{RET}, @key{TAB}, @key{DEL} and @key{ESC}. The space character is
usually known as @key{SPC}, even though strictly speaking it is a
graphic character that is blank.
Emacs extends the @acronym{ASCII} character set with thousands more printing
characters (@pxref{International}), additional control characters, and a
few more modifiers that can be combined with any character.
On @acronym{ASCII} terminals, there are only 32 possible control characters.
These are the control variants of letters and @samp{@@[]\^_}. In
addition, the shift key is meaningless with control characters:
@kbd{C-a} and @kbd{C-A} are the same character, and Emacs cannot
distinguish them.
The Emacs character set has room for control variants of all
printing characters, and distinguishes @kbd{C-A} from @kbd{C-a}.
Graphical terminals make it possible to enter all these characters.
For example, @kbd{C--} (that's Control-Minus) and @kbd{C-5} are
meaningful Emacs commands on a graphical terminal.
Another Emacs character-set extension is additional modifier bits.
Only one modifier bit is commonly used; it is called Meta. Every
character has a Meta variant; examples include @kbd{Meta-a} (normally
written @kbd{M-a}, for short), @kbd{M-A} (different from @kbd{M-a},
but they are normally equivalent in Emacs), @kbd{M-@key{RET}}, and
@kbd{M-C-a}. That last means @kbd{a} with both the @key{CTRL} and
@key{META} modifiers. We usually write it as @kbd{C-M-a} rather than
@kbd{M-C-a}, for reasons of tradition.
@cindex Meta
@cindex M-
@cindex @key{ESC} replacing @key{META} key
Some terminals have a @key{META} key, and allow you to type Meta
characters by holding this key down. Thus, you can type @kbd{Meta-a}
by holding down @key{META} and pressing @kbd{a}. The @key{META} key
works much like the @key{SHIFT} key. In fact, this key is more often
labeled @key{ALT} or @key{EDIT}, instead of @key{META}; on a Sun
keyboard, it may have a diamond on it.
If there is no @key{META} key, you can still type Meta characters
using two-character sequences starting with @key{ESC}. Thus, you can
enter @kbd{M-a} by typing @kbd{@key{ESC} a}. You can enter
@kbd{C-M-a} by typing @kbd{@key{ESC} C-a}. Unlike @key{META}, which
modifies other characters, @key{ESC} is a separate character. You
don't hold down @key{ESC} while typing the next character; instead,
you press it and release it, then you enter the next character.
@key{ESC} is allowed on terminals with @key{META} keys, too, in case
you have formed a habit of using it.
Emacs defines several other modifier keys that can be applied to any
input character. These are called @key{SUPER}, @key{HYPER} and
@key{ALT}. We write @samp{s-}, @samp{H-} and @samp{A-} to say that a
character uses these modifiers. Thus, @kbd{s-H-C-x} is short for
@kbd{Super-Hyper-Control-x}. Not all graphical terminals actually
provide keys for these modifier flags---in fact, many terminals have a
key labeled @key{ALT} which is really a @key{META} key. The standard
key bindings of Emacs do not include any characters with these
modifiers. But you can assign them meanings of your own by
customizing Emacs.
If your keyboard lacks one of these modifier keys, you can enter it
using @kbd{C-x @@}: @kbd{C-x @@ h} adds the ``hyper'' flag to the next
character, @kbd{C-x @@ s} adds the ``super'' flag, and @kbd{C-x @@ a}
adds the ``alt'' flag. For instance, @kbd{C-x @@ h C-a} is a way to
enter @kbd{Hyper-Control-a}. (Unfortunately there is no way to add
two modifiers by using @kbd{C-x @@} twice for the same character,
because the first one goes to work on the @kbd{C-x}.)
Keyboard input includes keyboard keys that are not characters at
all, such as function keys and arrow keys. Mouse buttons are also not
characters. However, you can modify these events with the modifier
keys @key{CTRL}, @key{META}, @key{SUPER}, @key{HYPER} and @key{ALT},
just like keyboard characters.
@cindex input event
Input characters and non-character inputs are collectively called
@dfn{input events}. @xref{Input Events,,, elisp, The Emacs Lisp
Reference Manual}, for the full Lisp-level details. If you are not
doing Lisp programming, but simply want to redefine the meaning of
some characters or non-character events, see @ref{Customization}.
@acronym{ASCII} terminals cannot really send anything to the computer except
@acronym{ASCII} characters. These terminals use a sequence of characters to
represent each function key. But that is invisible to the Emacs user,
because the keyboard input routines catch these special sequences
and convert them to function key events before any other part of Emacs
gets to see them.
@cindex keys stolen by window manager
@cindex window manager, keys stolen by
On graphical displays, the window manager is likely to block the
character @kbd{Meta-@key{TAB}} before Emacs can see it. It may also
block @kbd{Meta-@key{SPC}}, @kbd{C-M-d} and @kbd{C-M-l}. If you have
these problems, we recommend that you customize your window manager to
turn off those commands, or put them on key combinations that Emacs
does not use.
@node Keys, Commands, User Input, Top
@section Keys
@cindex key sequence
@cindex key
A @dfn{key sequence} (@dfn{key}, for short) is a sequence of input
events that is meaningful as a unit---a ``single command.'' Some
Emacs command sequences are invoked by just one character or one
event; for example, just @kbd{C-f} moves forward one character in the
buffer. But Emacs also has commands that take two or more events to
invoke.
@cindex complete key
@cindex prefix key
If a sequence of events is enough to invoke a command, it is a
@dfn{complete key}. Examples of complete keys include @kbd{C-a},
@kbd{X}, @key{RET}, @key{NEXT} (a function key), @key{DOWN} (an arrow
key), @kbd{C-x C-f}, and @kbd{C-x 4 C-f}. If it isn't long enough to be
complete, we call it a @dfn{prefix key}. The above examples show that
@kbd{C-x} and @kbd{C-x 4} are prefix keys. Every key sequence is either
a complete key or a prefix key.
Most single characters constitute complete keys in the standard Emacs
command bindings. A few of them are prefix keys. A prefix key combines
with the following input event to make a longer key sequence, which may
itself be complete or a prefix. For example, @kbd{C-x} is a prefix key,
so @kbd{C-x} and the next input event combine to make a two-event
key sequence. Most of these key sequences are complete keys, including
@kbd{C-x C-f} and @kbd{C-x b}. A few, such as @kbd{C-x 4} and @kbd{C-x
r}, are themselves prefix keys that lead to three-event key
sequences. There's no limit to the length of a key sequence, but in
practice people rarely use sequences longer than four events.
You can't add input events onto a complete key. For example, the
two-event sequence @kbd{C-f C-k} is not a key, because the @kbd{C-f}
is a complete key in itself. It's impossible to give @kbd{C-f C-k} an
independent meaning as a command. @kbd{C-f C-k} is two key sequences,
not one.@refill
All told, the prefix keys in Emacs are @kbd{C-c}, @kbd{C-h},
@kbd{C-x}, @kbd{C-x @key{RET}}, @kbd{C-x @@}, @kbd{C-x a}, @kbd{C-x
n}, @w{@kbd{C-x r}}, @kbd{C-x v}, @kbd{C-x 4}, @kbd{C-x 5}, @kbd{C-x
6}, @key{ESC}, @kbd{M-g}, and @kbd{M-o}. (@key{F1} and @key{F2} are
aliases for @kbd{C-h} and @kbd{C-x 6}.) This list is not cast in stone;
it describes the standard key bindings. If you customize Emacs, you can make
new prefix keys, or eliminate some of the standard ones (not
recommended for most users). @xref{Key Bindings}.
If you make or eliminate prefix keys, that changes the set of
possible key sequences. For example, if you redefine @kbd{C-f} as a
prefix, @kbd{C-f C-k} automatically becomes a key (complete, unless
you define that too as a prefix). Conversely, if you remove the
prefix definition of @kbd{C-x 4}, then @kbd{C-x 4 f} and @kbd{C-x 4
@var{anything}} are no longer keys.
Typing the help character (@kbd{C-h} or @key{F1}) after a prefix key
displays a list of the commands starting with that prefix. There are
a few prefix keys after which @kbd{C-h} does not work---for historical
reasons, they define other meanings for @kbd{C-h} which are painful to
change. @key{F1} works after all prefix keys.
@node Commands, Text Characters, Keys, Top
@section Keys and Commands
@cindex binding
@cindex command
@cindex function definition
This manual is full of passages that tell you what particular keys
do. But Emacs does not assign meanings to keys directly. Instead,
Emacs assigns meanings to named @dfn{commands}, and then gives keys
their meanings by @dfn{binding} them to commands.
Every command has a name chosen by a programmer. The name is
usually made of a few English words separated by dashes; for example,
@code{next-line} or @code{forward-word}. A command also has a
@dfn{function definition} which is a Lisp program; this is how the
command does its work. In Emacs Lisp, a command is a Lisp function with
special options to read arguments and for interactive use. For more
information on commands and functions, see @ref{What Is a Function,,
What Is a Function, elisp, The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}. (The
definition here is simplified slightly.)
The bindings between keys and commands are recorded in tables called
@dfn{keymaps}. @xref{Keymaps}.
When we say that ``@kbd{C-n} moves down vertically one line'' we are
glossing over a subtle distinction that is irrelevant in ordinary use,
but vital for Emacs customization. The command @code{next-line} does
a vertical move downward. @kbd{C-n} has this effect @emph{because} it
is bound to @code{next-line}. If you rebind @kbd{C-n} to the command
@code{forward-word}, @kbd{C-n} will move forward one word instead.
Rebinding keys is an important method of customization.
In the rest of this manual, we usually ignore this distinction to
keep things simple. We will often speak of keys like @kbd{C-n} as
commands, even though strictly speaking the key is bound to a command.
Usually we state the name of the command which really does the work in
parentheses after mentioning the key that runs it. For example, we
will say that ``The command @kbd{C-n} (@code{next-line}) moves point
vertically down,'' meaning that the command @code{next-line} moves
vertically down, and the key @kbd{C-n} is normally bound to it.
Since we are discussing customization, we should tell you about
@dfn{variables}. Often the description of a command will say, ``To
change this, set the variable @code{mumble-foo}.'' A variable is a
name used to store a value. Most of the variables documented in this
manual are meant for customization: some command or other part of
Emacs examines the variable and behaves differently according to the
value that you set. You can ignore the information about variables
until you are interested in customizing them. Then read the basic
information on variables (@pxref{Variables}) and the information about
specific variables will make sense.
@node Text Characters, Entering Emacs, Commands, Top
@section Character Set for Text
@cindex characters (in text)
Text in Emacs buffers is a sequence of characters. In the simplest
case, these are @acronym{ASCII} characters, each stored in one 8-bit
byte. Both @acronym{ASCII} control characters (octal codes 000
through 037, and 0177) and @acronym{ASCII} printing characters (codes
040 through 0176) are allowed. The other modifier flags used in
keyboard input, such as Meta, are not allowed in buffers.
Non-@acronym{ASCII} printing characters can also appear in buffers,
when multibyte characters are enabled. They have character codes
starting at 256, octal 0400, and each one is represented as a sequence
of two or more bytes. @xref{International}. Single-byte characters
with codes 128 through 255 can also appear in multibyte buffers.
However, non-@acronym{ASCII} control characters cannot appear in a
buffer.
Some @acronym{ASCII} control characters serve special purposes in text, and have
special names. For example, the newline character (octal code 012) is
used in the buffer to end a line, and the tab character (octal code 011)
is used for indenting to the next tab stop column (normally every 8
columns). @xref{Text Display}.
If you disable multibyte characters, then you can use only one
alphabet of non-@acronym{ASCII} characters, which all fit in one byte.
They use octal codes 0200 through 0377. @xref{Unibyte Mode}.
@ifnottex
@lowersections
@end ifnottex
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node Subdir Switches
@section Subdirectory Switches in Dired
You can insert subdirectories with specified @code{ls} switches in
Dired buffers, using @kbd{C-u i}. You can change the @code{ls}
switches of an already inserted subdirectory using @kbd{C-u l}.
In Emacs versions 22.1 and later, Dired remembers the switches, so
that reverting the buffer will not change them back to the main
directory's switches. Deleting a subdirectory forgets about its
switches.
Using @code{dired-undo} (usually bound to @kbd{C-_} and @kbd{C-x u})
to reinsert or delete subdirectories, that were inserted with explicit
switches, can bypass Dired's machinery for remembering (or forgetting)
switches. Deleting a subdirectory using @code{dired-undo} does not
forget its switches. When later reinserted using @kbd{i}, it will be
reinserted using its old switches. Using @code{dired-undo} to
reinsert a subdirectory that was deleted using the regular
Dired commands (not @code{dired-undo}) will originally insert it with
its old switches. However, reverting the buffer will relist it using
the buffer's default switches. If any of this yields problems, you
can easily correct the situation using @kbd{C-u i} or @kbd{C-u l}.
Dired does not remember the @code{R} switch. Inserting a subdirectory
with switches that include the @code{R} switch is equivalent with
inserting each of its subdirectories using all remaining switches.
For instance, updating or killing a subdirectory that was inserted
with the @code{R} switch will not update or kill its subdirectories.
The buffer's default switches do not affect subdirectories that were
inserted using explicitly specified switches. In particular,
commands such as @kbd{s}, that change the buffer's switches do not
affect such subdirectories. (They do affect subdirectories without
explicitly assigned switches, however.)
You can make Dired forget about all subdirectory switches and relist
all subdirectories with the buffer's default switches using
@kbd{M-x dired-reset-subdir-switches}. This also reverts the Dired buffer.
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c -*-texinfo-*-
@center Version 1.2, November 2002
@display
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
@end display
@sp 1
@enumerate 0
@item
PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document ``free'' in the sense of freedom: to
assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
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for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of ``copyleft,'' which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
@sp 1
@item
APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
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A ``Modified Version'' of the Document means any work containing the
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The ``Invariant Sections'' are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
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The ``Title Page'' means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
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A section ``Entitled XYZ'' means a named subunit of the Document whose
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of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section ``Entitled XYZ'' according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
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no effect on the meaning of this License.
@sp 1
@item
VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
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compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
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You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.
@sp 1
@item
COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
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Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
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If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
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If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
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It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
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@sp 1
@item
MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
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A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
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(which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
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B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
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Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.@*
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher.@*
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.@*
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
adjacent to the other copyright notices.@*
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.@*
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and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.@*
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.@*
I. Preserve the section Entitled ``History,'' Preserve its Title, and add
to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
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there is no section Entitled ``History'' in the Document, create one
stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
Version as stated in the previous sentence.@*
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
it was based on. These may be placed in the ``History'' section.
You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.@*
K. For any section Entitled ``Acknowledgements'' or ``Dedications,''
Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
and/or dedications given therein.@*
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers
or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.@*
M. Delete any section Entitled ``Endorsements.'' Such a section
may not be included in the Modified Version.@*
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled ``Endorsements''
or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.@*
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.@*
@sp 1
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled ``Endorsements,'' provided it contains
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You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
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The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
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@sp 1
@item
COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
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The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
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different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
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Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
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In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ``History''
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
``History''; likewise combine any sections Entitled ``Acknowledgements,''
and any sections Entitled ``Dedications.'' You must delete all sections
Entitled ``Endorsements.''
@sp 1
@item
COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
@sp 1
@item
AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an ``aggregate'' if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.
@sp 1
@item
TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled ``Acknowledgements,''
``Dedications,'' or ``History,'' the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
title.
@sp 1
@item
TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to
copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License. However,
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
parties remain in full compliance.
@sp 1
@item
FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License ``or any later version'' applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
@end enumerate
@unnumberedsec ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:
@smallexample
@group
Copyright (C) @var{year} @var{your name}.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License.''
@end group
@end smallexample
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the ``with...Texts.'' line with this:
@smallexample
@group
with the Invariant Sections being @var{list their titles}, with the
Front-Cover Texts being @var{list}, and with the Back-Cover Texts being
@var{list}.
@end group
@end smallexample
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.
@ignore
arch-tag: c1679162-1d8a-4f02-bc52-2e71765f0165
@end ignore

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\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*-
@comment %**start of header
@setfilename ../info/emacs-xtra
@settitle Specialized Emacs Features
@syncodeindex fn cp
@syncodeindex vr cp
@syncodeindex ky cp
@comment %**end of header
@copying
This manual describes specialized features of Emacs.
Copyright @copyright{} 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@quotation
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts being ``A GNU
Manual,'' and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below. A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation
License'' in the Emacs manual.
(a) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: ``You have freedom to copy and modify
this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies published by the Free
Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.''
This document is part of a collection distributed under the GNU Free
Documentation License. If you want to distribute this document
separately from the collection, you can do so by adding a copy of the
license to the document, as described in section 6 of the license.
@end quotation
@end copying
@dircategory Emacs
@direntry
* Emacs-Xtra: (emacs-xtra). Specialized Emacs features.
@end direntry
@titlepage
@title Specialized Emacs Features
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
@insertcopying
@end titlepage
@contents
@ifnottex
@node Top
@top Specialized Emacs Features
@insertcopying
@end ifnottex
@menu
* Introduction:: What documentation belongs here?
@iftex
* Picture Mode:: Editing pictures made up of characters using
the quarter-plane screen model.
* Autorevert:: Auto Reverting non-file buffers.
* Subdir Switches:: Subdirectory switches in Dired.
* Advanced Calendar/Diary Usage:: Advanced Calendar/Diary customization.
* Emerge:: A convenient way of merging two versions of a program.
* Advanced VC Usage:: Advanced VC (version control) features.
* Fortran:: Fortran mode and its special features.
* MS-DOS:: Using Emacs on MS-DOS (otherwise known as @dfn{MS-DOG}).
@end iftex
* Index::
@end menu
@node Introduction
@unnumbered Introduction
This manual contains detailed information about various features that
are too specialized to be included in the printed Emacs manual. It is
intended to be readable by anyone having a basic knowledge of Emacs.
However, certain sections may be intended for a more specialized
audience, such as Elisp authors. This should be clearly pointed out
at the beginning of these sections.
Certain packages, or collections of related features, have their own
manuals, separate from the main Emacs User's manual. This manual is
intended as a complement, rather than an alternative, to reading those
additional manuals; in a nutshell, it is a collection of smaller
specialized features, too small or too obscure to justify their own
manual.
Sections intended specifically for Elisp programmers can follow the
style of the Elisp manual. Other sections should follow the style of
the Emacs manual.
@iftex
@c ``Picture Mode'' is a chapter, not a section, so it's outside @raisesections.
@include picture-xtra.texi
@raisesections
@include arevert-xtra.texi
@include dired-xtra.texi
@include cal-xtra.texi
@include emerge-xtra.texi
@include vc-xtra.texi
@include fortran-xtra.texi
@include msdog-xtra.texi
@lowersections
@end iftex
@node Index
@unnumbered Index
@printindex cp
@bye
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node Emerge
@section Merging Files with Emerge
@cindex Emerge
@cindex merging files
It's not unusual for programmers to get their signals crossed and
modify the same program in two different directions. To recover from
this confusion, you need to merge the two versions. Emerge makes this
easier. For other ways to compare files, see
@iftex
@ref{Comparing Files,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual},
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@ref{Comparing Files},
@end ifnottex
and @ref{Top, Ediff,, ediff, The Ediff Manual}.
@menu
* Overview of Emerge:: How to start Emerge. Basic concepts.
* Submodes of Emerge:: Fast mode vs. Edit mode.
Skip Prefers mode and Auto Advance mode.
* State of Difference:: You do the merge by specifying state A or B
for each difference.
* Merge Commands:: Commands for selecting a difference,
changing states of differences, etc.
* Exiting Emerge:: What to do when you've finished the merge.
* Combining in Emerge:: How to keep both alternatives for a difference.
* Fine Points of Emerge:: Misc.
@end menu
@node Overview of Emerge
@subsection Overview of Emerge
To start Emerge, run one of these four commands:
@table @kbd
@item M-x emerge-files
@findex emerge-files
Merge two specified files.
@item M-x emerge-files-with-ancestor
@findex emerge-files-with-ancestor
Merge two specified files, with reference to a common ancestor.
@item M-x emerge-buffers
@findex emerge-buffers
Merge two buffers.
@item M-x emerge-buffers-with-ancestor
@findex emerge-buffers-with-ancestor
Merge two buffers with reference to a common ancestor in a third
buffer.
@end table
@cindex merge buffer (Emerge)
@cindex A and B buffers (Emerge)
The Emerge commands compare two files or buffers, and display the
comparison in three buffers: one for each input text (the @dfn{A buffer}
and the @dfn{B buffer}), and one (the @dfn{merge buffer}) where merging
takes place. The merge buffer shows the full merged text, not just the
differences. Wherever the two input texts differ, you can choose which
one of them to include in the merge buffer.
The Emerge commands that take input from existing buffers use only
the accessible portions of those buffers, if they are narrowed.
@iftex
@xref{Narrowing,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Narrowing}.
@end ifnottex
If a common ancestor version is available, from which the two texts to
be merged were both derived, Emerge can use it to guess which
alternative is right. Wherever one current version agrees with the
ancestor, Emerge presumes that the other current version is a deliberate
change which should be kept in the merged version. Use the
@samp{with-ancestor} commands if you want to specify a common ancestor
text. These commands read three file or buffer names---variant A,
variant B, and the common ancestor.
After the comparison is done and the buffers are prepared, the
interactive merging starts. You control the merging by typing special
@dfn{merge commands} in the merge buffer (@pxref{Merge Commands}).
For each run of differences between the input texts, you can choose
which one of them to keep, or edit them both together.
The merge buffer uses a special major mode, Emerge mode, with commands
for making these choices. But you can also edit the buffer with
ordinary Emacs commands.
At any given time, the attention of Emerge is focused on one
particular difference, called the @dfn{selected} difference. This
difference is marked off in the three buffers like this:
@example
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
@var{text that differs}
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@end example
@noindent
Emerge numbers all the differences sequentially and the mode
line always shows the number of the selected difference.
Normally, the merge buffer starts out with the A version of the text.
But when the A version of a difference agrees with the common ancestor,
then the B version is initially preferred for that difference.
Emerge leaves the merged text in the merge buffer when you exit. At
that point, you can save it in a file with @kbd{C-x C-w}. If you give a
numeric argument to @code{emerge-files} or
@code{emerge-files-with-ancestor}, it reads the name of the output file
using the minibuffer. (This is the last file name those commands read.)
Then exiting from Emerge saves the merged text in the output file.
Normally, Emerge commands save the output buffer in its file when you
exit. If you abort Emerge with @kbd{C-]}, the Emerge command does not
save the output buffer, but you can save it yourself if you wish.
@node Submodes of Emerge
@subsection Submodes of Emerge
You can choose between two modes for giving merge commands: Fast mode
and Edit mode. In Fast mode, basic merge commands are single
characters, but ordinary Emacs commands are disabled. This is
convenient if you use only merge commands. In Edit mode, all merge
commands start with the prefix key @kbd{C-c C-c}, and the normal Emacs
commands are also available. This allows editing the merge buffer, but
slows down Emerge operations.
Use @kbd{e} to switch to Edit mode, and @kbd{C-c C-c f} to switch to
Fast mode. The mode line indicates Edit and Fast modes with @samp{E}
and @samp{F}.
Emerge has two additional submodes that affect how particular merge
commands work: Auto Advance mode and Skip Prefers mode.
If Auto Advance mode is in effect, the @kbd{a} and @kbd{b} commands
advance to the next difference. This lets you go through the merge
faster as long as you simply choose one of the alternatives from the
input. The mode line indicates Auto Advance mode with @samp{A}.
If Skip Prefers mode is in effect, the @kbd{n} and @kbd{p} commands
skip over differences in states prefer-A and prefer-B (@pxref{State of
Difference}). Thus you see only differences for which neither version
is presumed ``correct.'' The mode line indicates Skip Prefers mode with
@samp{S}.
@findex emerge-auto-advance-mode
@findex emerge-skip-prefers-mode
Use the command @kbd{s a} (@code{emerge-auto-advance-mode}) to set or
clear Auto Advance mode. Use @kbd{s s}
(@code{emerge-skip-prefers-mode}) to set or clear Skip Prefers mode.
These commands turn on the mode with a positive argument, turns it off
with a negative or zero argument, and toggle the mode with no argument.
@node State of Difference
@subsection State of a Difference
In the merge buffer, a difference is marked with lines of @samp{v} and
@samp{^} characters. Each difference has one of these seven states:
@table @asis
@item A
The difference is showing the A version. The @kbd{a} command always
produces this state; the mode line indicates it with @samp{A}.
@item B
The difference is showing the B version. The @kbd{b} command always
produces this state; the mode line indicates it with @samp{B}.
@item default-A
@itemx default-B
The difference is showing the A or the B state by default, because you
haven't made a choice. All differences start in the default-A state
(and thus the merge buffer is a copy of the A buffer), except those for
which one alternative is ``preferred'' (see below).
When you select a difference, its state changes from default-A or
default-B to plain A or B. Thus, the selected difference never has
state default-A or default-B, and these states are never displayed in
the mode line.
The command @kbd{d a} chooses default-A as the default state, and @kbd{d
b} chooses default-B. This chosen default applies to all differences
which you haven't ever selected and for which no alternative is preferred.
If you are moving through the merge sequentially, the differences you
haven't selected are those following the selected one. Thus, while
moving sequentially, you can effectively make the A version the default
for some sections of the merge buffer and the B version the default for
others by using @kbd{d a} and @kbd{d b} between sections.
@item prefer-A
@itemx prefer-B
The difference is showing the A or B state because it is
@dfn{preferred}. This means that you haven't made an explicit choice,
but one alternative seems likely to be right because the other
alternative agrees with the common ancestor. Thus, where the A buffer
agrees with the common ancestor, the B version is preferred, because
chances are it is the one that was actually changed.
These two states are displayed in the mode line as @samp{A*} and @samp{B*}.
@item combined
The difference is showing a combination of the A and B states, as a
result of the @kbd{x c} or @kbd{x C} commands.
Once a difference is in this state, the @kbd{a} and @kbd{b} commands
don't do anything to it unless you give them a numeric argument.
The mode line displays this state as @samp{comb}.
@end table
@node Merge Commands
@subsection Merge Commands
Here are the Merge commands for Fast mode; in Edit mode, precede them
with @kbd{C-c C-c}:
@table @kbd
@item p
Select the previous difference.
@item n
Select the next difference.
@item a
Choose the A version of this difference.
@item b
Choose the B version of this difference.
@item C-u @var{n} j
Select difference number @var{n}.
@item .
Select the difference containing point. You can use this command in the
merge buffer or in the A or B buffer.
@item q
Quit---finish the merge.
@item C-]
Abort---exit merging and do not save the output.
@item f
Go into Fast mode. (In Edit mode, this is actually @kbd{C-c C-c f}.)
@item e
Go into Edit mode.
@item l
Recenter (like @kbd{C-l}) all three windows.
@item -
Specify part of a prefix numeric argument.
@item @var{digit}
Also specify part of a prefix numeric argument.
@item d a
Choose the A version as the default from here down in
the merge buffer.
@item d b
Choose the B version as the default from here down in
the merge buffer.
@item c a
Copy the A version of this difference into the kill ring.
@item c b
Copy the B version of this difference into the kill ring.
@item i a
Insert the A version of this difference at point.
@item i b
Insert the B version of this difference at point.
@item m
Put point and mark around the difference.
@item ^
Scroll all three windows down (like @kbd{M-v}).
@item v
Scroll all three windows up (like @kbd{C-v}).
@item <
Scroll all three windows left (like @kbd{C-x <}).
@item >
Scroll all three windows right (like @kbd{C-x >}).
@item |
Reset horizontal scroll on all three windows.
@item x 1
Shrink the merge window to one line. (Use @kbd{C-u l} to restore it
to full size.)
@item x c
Combine the two versions of this difference (@pxref{Combining in
Emerge}).
@item x f
Show the names of the files/buffers Emerge is operating on, in a Help
window. (Use @kbd{C-u l} to restore windows.)
@item x j
Join this difference with the following one.
(@kbd{C-u x j} joins this difference with the previous one.)
@item x s
Split this difference into two differences. Before you use this
command, position point in each of the three buffers at the place where
you want to split the difference.
@item x t
Trim identical lines off the top and bottom of the difference.
Such lines occur when the A and B versions are
identical but differ from the ancestor version.
@end table
@node Exiting Emerge
@subsection Exiting Emerge
The @kbd{q} command (@code{emerge-quit}) finishes the merge, storing
the results into the output file if you specified one. It restores the
A and B buffers to their proper contents, or kills them if they were
created by Emerge and you haven't changed them. It also disables the
Emerge commands in the merge buffer, since executing them later could
damage the contents of the various buffers.
@kbd{C-]} aborts the merge. This means exiting without writing the
output file. If you didn't specify an output file, then there is no
real difference between aborting and finishing the merge.
If the Emerge command was called from another Lisp program, then its
return value is @code{t} for successful completion, or @code{nil} if you
abort.
@node Combining in Emerge
@subsection Combining the Two Versions
Sometimes you want to keep @emph{both} alternatives for a particular
difference. To do this, use @kbd{x c}, which edits the merge buffer
like this:
@example
@group
#ifdef NEW
@var{version from A buffer}
#else /* not NEW */
@var{version from B buffer}
#endif /* not NEW */
@end group
@end example
@noindent
@vindex emerge-combine-versions-template
While this example shows C preprocessor conditionals delimiting the two
alternative versions, you can specify the strings to use by setting
the variable @code{emerge-combine-versions-template} to a string of your
choice. In the string, @samp{%a} says where to put version A, and
@samp{%b} says where to put version B. The default setting, which
produces the results shown above, looks like this:
@example
@group
"#ifdef NEW\n%a#else /* not NEW */\n%b#endif /* not NEW */\n"
@end group
@end example
@node Fine Points of Emerge
@subsection Fine Points of Emerge
During the merge, you mustn't try to edit the A and B buffers yourself.
Emerge modifies them temporarily, but ultimately puts them back the way
they were.
You can have any number of merges going at once---just don't use any one
buffer as input to more than one merge at once, since the temporary
changes made in these buffers would get in each other's way.
Starting Emerge can take a long time because it needs to compare the
files fully. Emacs can't do anything else until @code{diff} finishes.
Perhaps in the future someone will change Emerge to do the comparison in
the background when the input files are large---then you could keep on
doing other things with Emacs until Emerge is ready to accept
commands.
@vindex emerge-startup-hook
After setting up the merge, Emerge runs the hook
@code{emerge-startup-hook}.
@iftex
@xref{Hooks,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Hooks}.
@end ifnottex
@ignore
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003,
@c 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Entering Emacs, Exiting, Text Characters, Top
@chapter Entering and Exiting Emacs
@cindex entering Emacs
@cindex starting Emacs
The usual way to invoke Emacs is with the shell command
@command{emacs}. Emacs clears the screen, then displays an initial
help message and copyright notice. Some operating systems discard
your type-ahead when Emacs starts up; they give Emacs no way to
prevent this. On those systems, wait for Emacs to clear the screen
before you start typing.
From a shell window under the X Window System, run Emacs in the
background with @command{emacs&}. This way, Emacs won't tie up the
shell window, so you can use it to run other shell commands while
Emacs is running. You can type Emacs commands as soon as you direct
your keyboard input to an Emacs frame.
@vindex initial-major-mode
When Emacs starts up, it creates a buffer named @samp{*scratch*}.
That's the buffer you start out in. The @samp{*scratch*} buffer uses
Lisp Interaction mode; you can use it to type Lisp expressions and
evaluate them. You can also ignore that capability and just write notes
there. You can specify a different major mode for this buffer by
setting the variable @code{initial-major-mode} in your init file.
@xref{Init File}.
It is possible to specify files to be visited, Lisp files to be
loaded, and functions to be called through Emacs command-line
arguments. @xref{Emacs Invocation}. The feature exists mainly for
compatibility with other editors, and for scripts.
Many editors are designed to edit one file. When done with that
file, you exit the editor. The next time you want to edit a file, you
must start the editor again. Working this way, it is convenient to
use a command-line argument to say which file to edit.
However, killing Emacs after editing one each and starting it afresh
for the next file is both unnecessary and harmful, since it denies you
the full power of Emacs. Emacs can visit more than one file in a
single editing session, and that is the right way to use it. Exiting
the Emacs session loses valuable accumulated context, such as the kill
ring, registers, undo history, and mark ring. These features are
useful for operating on multiple files, or even continuing to edit one
file. If you kill Emacs after each file, you don't take advantage of
them.
The recommended way to use GNU Emacs is to start it only once, just
after you log in, and do all your editing in the same Emacs session.
Each time you edit a file, you visit it with the existing Emacs, which
eventually has many files in it ready for editing. Usually you do not
kill Emacs until you are about to log out. @xref{Files}, for more
information on visiting more than one file.
To edit a file from another program while Emacs is running, you can
use the @command{emacsclient} helper program to open a file in the
already running Emacs. @xref{Emacs Server}.
@ifnottex
@raisesections
@end ifnottex
@node Exiting, Basic, Entering Emacs, Top
@section Exiting Emacs
@cindex exiting
@cindex killing Emacs
@cindex suspending
@cindex leaving Emacs
@cindex quitting Emacs
There are two commands for exiting Emacs, and three kinds of
exiting: @dfn{iconifying} Emacs, @dfn{suspending} Emacs, and
@dfn{killing} Emacs.
@dfn{Iconifying} means replacing the Emacs frame with a small box or
``icon'' on the screen. This is the usual way to exit Emacs when
you're using a graphical display---if you bother to ``exit'' at all.
(Just switching to another application is usually sufficient.)
@dfn{Suspending} means stopping Emacs temporarily and returning
control to its parent process (usually a shell), allowing you to
resume editing later in the same Emacs job. This is the usual way to
exit Emacs when running it on a text terminal.
@dfn{Killing} Emacs means destroying the Emacs job. You can run Emacs
again later, but you will get a fresh Emacs; there is no way to resume
the same editing session after it has been killed.
@table @kbd
@item C-z
Suspend Emacs (@code{suspend-emacs}) or iconify a frame
(@code{iconify-or-deiconify-frame}).
@item C-x C-c
Kill Emacs (@code{save-buffers-kill-emacs}).
@end table
@kindex C-z
@findex iconify-or-deiconify-frame
On graphical displays, @kbd{C-z} runs the command
@code{iconify-or-deiconify-frame}, which temporarily iconifies (or
``minimizes'') the selected Emacs frame (@pxref{Frames}). You can
then use the window manager to select some other application. (You
could select another application without iconifying Emacs first, but
getting the Emacs frame out of the way can make it more convenient to
find the other application.)
@findex suspend-emacs
On a text terminal, @kbd{C-z} runs the command @code{suspend-emacs}.
Suspending Emacs takes you back to the shell from which you invoked
Emacs. You can resume Emacs with the shell command @command{%emacs}
in most common shells. On systems that don't support suspending
programs, @kbd{C-z} starts an inferior shell that communicates
directly with the terminal, and Emacs waits until you exit the
subshell. (The way to do that is probably with @kbd{C-d} or
@command{exit}, but it depends on which shell you use.) On these
systems, you can only get back to the shell from which Emacs was run
(to log out, for example) when you kill Emacs.
@vindex cannot-suspend
Suspending can fail if you run Emacs under a shell that doesn't
support suspendion of its subjobs, even if the system itself does
support it. In such a case, you can set the variable
@code{cannot-suspend} to a non-@code{nil} value to force @kbd{C-z} to
start an inferior shell.
@kindex C-x C-c
@findex save-buffers-kill-emacs
To exit and kill Emacs, type @kbd{C-x C-c}
(@code{save-buffers-kill-emacs}). A two-character key is used to make
it harder to type by accident. This command first offers to save any
modified file-visiting buffers. If you do not save them all, it asks
for confirmation with @kbd{yes} before killing Emacs, since any
changes not saved now will be lost forever. Also, if any subprocesses are
still running, @kbd{C-x C-c} asks for confirmation about them, since
killing Emacs will also kill the subprocesses.
@vindex confirm-kill-emacs
If the value of the variable @code{confirm-kill-emacs} is
non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x C-c} assumes that its value is a predicate
function, and calls that function. If the result is non-@code{nil}, the
session is killed, otherwise Emacs continues to run. One convenient
function to use as the value of @code{confirm-kill-emacs} is the
function @code{yes-or-no-p}. The default value of
@code{confirm-kill-emacs} is @code{nil}.
You can't resume an Emacs session after killing it. Emacs can,
however, record certain session information when you kill it, such as
which files you visited, so the next time you start Emacs it will try
to visit the same files. @xref{Saving Emacs Sessions}.
The operating system usually listens for certain special characters
whose meaning is to kill or suspend the program you are running.
@b{This operating system feature is turned off while you are in Emacs.}
The meanings of @kbd{C-z} and @kbd{C-x C-c} as keys in Emacs were
inspired by the use of @kbd{C-z} and @kbd{C-c} on several operating
systems as the characters for stopping or killing a program, but that is
their only relationship with the operating system. You can customize
these keys to run any commands of your choice (@pxref{Keymaps}).
@ifnottex
@lowersections
@end ifnottex
@ignore
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Fixit, Keyboard Macros, Search, Top
@chapter Commands for Fixing Typos
@cindex typos, fixing
@cindex mistakes, correcting
In this chapter we describe the commands that are especially useful for
the times when you catch a mistake in your text just after you have made
it, or change your mind while composing text on the fly.
The most fundamental command for correcting erroneous editing is the
undo command, @kbd{C-x u} or @kbd{C-_} or @kbd{C-/}. This command
undoes a single command (usually), a part of a command (in the case of
@code{query-replace}), or several consecutive self-inserting
characters. Consecutive repetitions of the undo command undo earlier
and earlier changes, back to the limit of the undo information
available. @xref{Undo}, for more information.
@menu
* Undo:: The Undo commands.
* Kill Errors:: Commands to kill a batch of recently entered text.
* Transpose:: Exchanging two characters, words, lines, lists...
* Fixing Case:: Correcting case of last word entered.
* Spelling:: Apply spelling checker to a word, or a whole file.
@end menu
@node Undo
@section Undo
@cindex undo
@cindex changes, undoing
The @dfn{undo} commands undo recent changes in the buffer's text.
Each buffer records changes individually, and the undo command always
applies to the current buffer. You can undo all the changes in a
buffer for as far as back these records go. Usually each editing
command makes a separate entry in the undo records, but some commands
such as @code{query-replace} divide their changes into multiple
entries for flexibility in undoing. Meanwhile, self-inserting
characters are usually grouped to make undoing less tedious.
@table @kbd
@item C-x u
@itemx C-_
@itemx C-/
Undo one entry in the current buffer's undo records (@code{undo}).
@end table
@kindex C-x u
@kindex C-_
@kindex C-/
@findex undo
To begin to undo, type the command @kbd{C-x u} (or its aliases,
@kbd{C-_} or @kbd{C-/}). This undoes the most recent change in the
buffer, and moves point back to where it was before that change.
Consecutive repetitions of @kbd{C-x u} (or its aliases) undo earlier
and earlier changes in the current buffer, back to the limit of the
current buffer's undo records. If all the recorded changes have
already been undone, the undo command just signals an error.
If you notice that a buffer has been modified accidentally, the
easiest way to recover is to type @kbd{C-_} repeatedly until the stars
disappear from the front of the mode line. At this time, all the
modifications you made have been canceled. Whenever an undo command
makes the stars disappear from the mode line, it means that the buffer
contents are the same as they were when the file was last read in or
saved.
If you do not remember whether you changed the buffer deliberately,
type @kbd{C-_} once. When you see the last change you made undone, you
will see whether it was an intentional change. If it was an accident,
leave it undone. If it was deliberate, redo the change as described
below.
@findex undo-only
Any command other than an undo command breaks the sequence of undo
commands. Starting from that moment, the previous undo commands
become ordinary changes that you can undo. Thus, to redo changes you
have undone, type @kbd{C-f} or any other command that will harmlessly
break the sequence of undoing, then type undo commands again. On the
other hand, if you want to resume undoing, without redoing previous
undo commands, use @kbd{M-x undo-only}. This is like @code{undo}, but
will not redo changes you have just undone.
@cindex selective undo
@kindex C-u C-x u
Ordinary undo applies to all changes made in the current buffer. You
can also perform @dfn{selective undo}, limited to the region.
To do this, specify the region you want, then run the @code{undo}
command with a prefix argument (the value does not matter): @kbd{C-u
C-x u} or @kbd{C-u C-_}. This undoes the most recent change in the
region. To undo further changes in the same region, repeat the
@code{undo} command (no prefix argument is needed). In Transient Mark
mode (@pxref{Transient Mark}), any use of @code{undo} when there is an
active region performs selective undo; you do not need a prefix
argument.
Some specialized buffers do not make undo records. Buffers
whose names start with spaces never do; these buffers are used
internally by Emacs and its extensions to hold text that users don't
normally look at or edit.
@vindex undo-limit
@vindex undo-strong-limit
@vindex undo-outer-limit
@cindex undo limit
When the undo records for a buffer becomes too large, Emacs
discards the oldest undo records from time to time (during garbage
collection). You can specify how much undo records to keep by
setting three variables: @code{undo-limit}, @code{undo-strong-limit},
and @code{undo-outer-limit}. Their values are expressed in units of
bytes of space.
The variable @code{undo-limit} sets a soft limit: Emacs keeps undo
data for enough commands to reach this size, and perhaps exceed it,
but does not keep data for any earlier commands beyond that. Its
default value is 20000. The variable @code{undo-strong-limit} sets a
stricter limit: a previous command (not the most recent one) which
pushes the size past this amount is itself forgotten. The default
value of @code{undo-strong-limit} is 30000.
Regardless of the values of those variables, the most recent change
is never discarded unless it gets bigger than @code{undo-outer-limit}
(normally 3,000,000). At that point, Emacs discards the undo data and
warns you about it. This is the only situation in which you cannot
undo the last command. If this happens, you can increase the value of
@code{undo-outer-limit} to make it even less likely to happen in the
future. But if you didn't expect the command to create such large
undo data, then it is probably a bug and you should report it.
@xref{Bugs,, Reporting Bugs}.
The reason the @code{undo} command has three key bindings, @kbd{C-x
u}, @kbd{C-_} and @kbd{C-/}, is that it is worthy of a
single-character key, but @kbd{C-x u} is more straightforward for
beginners to remember and type. Meanwhile, @kbd{C--} on a text-only
terminal is really @kbd{C-_}, which makes it a natural and easily
typed binding for undoing.
@node Kill Errors
@section Killing Your Mistakes
@table @kbd
@item @key{DEL}
Delete last character (@code{delete-backward-char}).
@item M-@key{DEL}
Kill last word (@code{backward-kill-word}).
@item C-x @key{DEL}
Kill to beginning of sentence (@code{backward-kill-sentence}).
@end table
The @key{DEL} character (@code{delete-backward-char}) is the most
important correction command. It deletes the character before point.
When @key{DEL} follows a self-inserting character command, you can think
of it as canceling that command. However, avoid the confusion of thinking
of @key{DEL} as a general way to cancel a command!
When your mistake is longer than a couple of characters, it might be
more convenient to use @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} or @kbd{C-x @key{DEL}}.
@kbd{M-@key{DEL}} kills back to the start of the last word, and @kbd{C-x
@key{DEL}} kills back to the start of the last sentence. @kbd{C-x
@key{DEL}} is particularly useful when you change your mind about the
phrasing of the text you are writing. @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} and @kbd{C-x
@key{DEL}} save the killed text for @kbd{C-y} and @kbd{M-y} to
retrieve. @xref{Yanking}.@refill
@kbd{M-@key{DEL}} is often useful even when you have typed only a few
characters wrong, if you know you are confused in your typing and aren't
sure exactly what you typed. At such a time, you cannot correct with
@key{DEL} except by looking at the screen to see what you did. Often it
requires less thought to kill the whole word and start again.
@node Transpose
@section Transposing Text
@table @kbd
@item C-t
Transpose two characters (@code{transpose-chars}).
@item M-t
Transpose two words (@code{transpose-words}).
@item C-M-t
Transpose two balanced expressions (@code{transpose-sexps}).
@item C-x C-t
Transpose two lines (@code{transpose-lines}).
@end table
@kindex C-t
@findex transpose-chars
The common error of transposing two characters can be fixed, when they
are adjacent, with the @kbd{C-t} command (@code{transpose-chars}). Normally,
@kbd{C-t} transposes the two characters on either side of point. When
given at the end of a line, rather than transposing the last character of
the line with the newline, which would be useless, @kbd{C-t} transposes the
last two characters on the line. So, if you catch your transposition error
right away, you can fix it with just a @kbd{C-t}. If you don't catch it so
fast, you must move the cursor back between the two transposed
characters before you type @kbd{C-t}. If you transposed a space with
the last character of the word before it, the word motion commands are
a good way of getting there. Otherwise, a reverse search (@kbd{C-r})
is often the best way. @xref{Search}.
@kindex C-x C-t
@findex transpose-lines
@kindex M-t
@findex transpose-words
@c Don't index C-M-t and transpose-sexps here, they are indexed in
@c programs.texi, in the "List Commands" node.
@c @kindex C-M-t
@c @findex transpose-sexps
@kbd{M-t} transposes the word before point with the word after point
(@code{transpose-words}). It moves point forward over a word,
dragging the word preceding or containing point forward as well. The
punctuation characters between the words do not move. For example,
@w{@samp{FOO, BAR}} transposes into @w{@samp{BAR, FOO}} rather than
@samp{@w{BAR FOO,}}.
@kbd{C-M-t} (@code{transpose-sexps}) is a similar command for
transposing two expressions (@pxref{Expressions}), and @kbd{C-x C-t}
(@code{transpose-lines}) exchanges lines. They work like @kbd{M-t}
except as regards what units of text they transpose.
A numeric argument to a transpose command serves as a repeat count: it
tells the transpose command to move the character (word, expression, line)
before or containing point across several other characters (words,
expressions, lines). For example, @kbd{C-u 3 C-t} moves the character before
point forward across three other characters. It would change
@samp{f@point{}oobar} into @samp{oobf@point{}ar}. This is equivalent to
repeating @kbd{C-t} three times. @kbd{C-u - 4 M-t} moves the word
before point backward across four words. @kbd{C-u - C-M-t} would cancel
the effect of plain @kbd{C-M-t}.@refill
A numeric argument of zero is assigned a special meaning (because
otherwise a command with a repeat count of zero would do nothing): to
transpose the character (word, expression, line) ending after point
with the one ending after the mark.
@node Fixing Case
@section Case Conversion
@table @kbd
@item M-- M-l
Convert last word to lower case. Note @kbd{Meta--} is Meta-minus.
@item M-- M-u
Convert last word to all upper case.
@item M-- M-c
Convert last word to lower case with capital initial.
@end table
@kindex M-@t{-} M-l
@kindex M-@t{-} M-u
@kindex M-@t{-} M-c
A very common error is to type words in the wrong case. Because of this,
the word case-conversion commands @kbd{M-l}, @kbd{M-u} and @kbd{M-c} have a
special feature when used with a negative argument: they do not move the
cursor. As soon as you see you have mistyped the last word, you can simply
case-convert it and go on typing. @xref{Case}.@refill
@node Spelling
@section Checking and Correcting Spelling
@cindex spelling, checking and correcting
@cindex checking spelling
@cindex correcting spelling
This section describes the commands to check the spelling of a single
word or of a portion of a buffer. These commands work with the spelling
checker programs Aspell and Ispell, which are not part of Emacs.
@ifnottex
@xref{Top, Aspell,, aspell, The Aspell Manual}.
@end ifnottex
@table @kbd
@item M-x flyspell-mode
Enable Flyspell mode, which highlights all misspelled words.
@item M-x flyspell-prog-mode
Enable Flyspell mode for comments and strings only.
@item M-$
Check and correct spelling of the word at point (@code{ispell-word}).
@item M-@key{TAB}
@itemx @key{ESC} @key{TAB}
Complete the word before point based on the spelling dictionary
(@code{ispell-complete-word}).
@item M-x ispell
Spell-check the active region or the current buffer.
@item M-x ispell-buffer
Check and correct spelling of each word in the buffer.
@item M-x ispell-region
Check and correct spelling of each word in the region.
@item M-x ispell-message
Check and correct spelling of each word in a draft mail message,
excluding cited material.
@item M-x ispell-change-dictionary @key{RET} @var{dict} @key{RET}
Restart the Aspell or Ispell process, using @var{dict} as the dictionary.
@item M-x ispell-kill-ispell
Kill the Aspell or Ispell subprocess.
@end table
@cindex Flyspell mode
@findex flyspell-mode
Flyspell mode is a fully-automatic way to check spelling as you edit
in Emacs. It operates by checking words as you change or insert them.
When it finds a word that it does not recognize, it highlights that
word. This does not interfere with your editing, but when you see the
highlighted word, you can move to it and fix it. Type @kbd{M-x
flyspell-mode} to enable or disable this mode in the current buffer.
When Flyspell mode highlights a word as misspelled, you can click on
it with @kbd{Mouse-2} to display a menu of possible corrections and
actions. You can also correct the word by editing it manually in any
way you like.
@findex flyspell-prog-mode
Flyspell Prog mode works just like ordinary Flyspell mode, except that
it only checks words in comments and string constants. This feature
is useful for editing programs. Type @kbd{M-x flyspell-prog-mode} to
enable or disable this mode in the current buffer.
The other Emacs spell-checking features check or look up words when
you give an explicit command to do so.
@kindex M-$
@findex ispell-word
To check the spelling of the word around or before point, and
optionally correct it as well, use the command @kbd{M-$}
(@code{ispell-word}). If the word is not correct, the command offers
you various alternatives for what to do about it.
@findex ispell-buffer
@findex ispell-region
To check the entire current buffer, use @kbd{M-x ispell-buffer}. Use
@kbd{M-x ispell-region} to check just the current region. To check
spelling in an email message you are writing, use @kbd{M-x
ispell-message}; that command checks the whole buffer, except for
material that is indented or appears to be cited from other messages.
@findex ispell
@cindex spell-checking the active region
The @kbd{M-x ispell} command spell-checks the active region if the
Transient Mark mode is on (@pxref{Transient Mark}), otherwise it
spell-checks the current buffer.
Each time these commands encounter an incorrect word, they ask you
what to do. They display a list of alternatives, usually including
several ``near-misses''---words that are close to the word being
checked. Then you must type a single-character response. Here are
the valid responses:
@table @kbd
@item @key{SPC}
Skip this word---continue to consider it incorrect, but don't change it
here.
@item r @var{new} @key{RET}
Replace the word (just this time) with @var{new}. (The replacement
string will be rescanned for more spelling errors.)
@item R @var{new} @key{RET}
Replace the word with @var{new}, and do a @code{query-replace} so you
can replace it elsewhere in the buffer if you wish. (The replacements
will be rescanned for more spelling errors.)
@item @var{digit}
Replace the word (just this time) with one of the displayed
near-misses. Each near-miss is listed with a digit; type that digit to
select it.
@item a
Accept the incorrect word---treat it as correct, but only in this
editing session.
@item A
Accept the incorrect word---treat it as correct, but only in this
editing session and for this buffer.
@item i
Insert this word in your private dictionary file so that Aspell or Ispell will
consider it correct from now on, even in future sessions.
@item u
Insert the lower-case version of this word in your private dic@-tion@-ary
file.
@item m
Like @kbd{i}, but you can also specify dictionary completion
information.
@item l @var{word} @key{RET}
Look in the dictionary for words that match @var{word}. These words
become the new list of ``near-misses''; you can select one of them as
the replacement by typing a digit. You can use @samp{*} in @var{word} as a
wildcard.
@item C-g
Quit interactive spell checking, leaving point at the word that was
being checked. You can restart checking again afterward with @kbd{C-u
M-$}.
@item X
Same as @kbd{C-g}.
@item x
Quit interactive spell checking and move point back to where it was
when you started spell checking.
@item q
Quit interactive spell checking and kill the Ispell subprocess.
@item C-l
Refresh the screen.
@item C-z
This key has its normal command meaning (suspend Emacs or iconify this
frame).
@item ?
Show the list of options.
@end table
@findex ispell-complete-word
The command @code{ispell-complete-word}, which is bound to the key
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}} in Text mode and related modes, shows a list of
completions based on spelling correction. Insert the beginning of a
word, and then type @kbd{M-@key{TAB}}; the command displays a
completion list window. (If your window manager intercepts
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}}, type @kbd{@key{ESC} @key{TAB}} or @kbd{C-M-i}.) To
choose one of the completions listed, click @kbd{Mouse-2} or
@kbd{Mouse-1} fast on it, or move the cursor there in the completions
window and type @key{RET}. @xref{Text Mode}.
@ignore
@findex reload-ispell
The first time you use any of the spell checking commands, it starts
an Ispell subprocess. The first thing the subprocess does is read your
private dictionary, which defaults to the file @file{~/ispell.words}.
Words that you ``insert'' with the @kbd{i} command are added to that
file, but not right away---only at the end of the interactive
replacement procedure. Use the @kbd{M-x reload-ispell} command to
reload your private dictionary if you edit the file outside of Ispell.
@end ignore
@cindex @code{ispell} program
@findex ispell-kill-ispell
Once started, the Aspell or Ispell subprocess continues to run
(waiting for something to do), so that subsequent spell checking
commands complete more quickly. If you want to get rid of the
process, use @kbd{M-x ispell-kill-ispell}. This is not usually
necessary, since the process uses no time except when you do spelling
correction.
@vindex ispell-dictionary
Ispell and Aspell use two dictionaries together for spell checking: the
standard dictionary and your private dictionary. The variable
@code{ispell-dictionary} specifies the file name to use for the
standard dictionary; a value of @code{nil} selects the default
dictionary. The command @kbd{M-x ispell-change-dictionary} sets this
variable and then restarts the subprocess, so that it will use
a different standard dictionary.
@vindex ispell-complete-word-dict
Aspell and Ispell use a separate dictionary for word completion.
The variable @code{ispell-complete-word-dict} specifies the file name
of this dictionary. The completion dictionary must be different
because it cannot use root and affix information. For some languages
there is a spell checking dictionary but no word completion
dictionary.
@ignore
arch-tag: 3359a443-96ed-448f-9f05-c8111ba8eac0
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node Fortran
@section Fortran Mode
@cindex Fortran mode
@cindex mode, Fortran
Fortran mode provides special motion commands for Fortran statements
and subprograms, and indentation commands that understand Fortran
conventions of nesting, line numbers and continuation statements.
Fortran mode has support for Auto Fill mode that breaks long lines into
proper Fortran continuation lines.
Special commands for comments are provided because Fortran comments
are unlike those of other languages. Built-in abbrevs optionally save
typing when you insert Fortran keywords.
Use @kbd{M-x fortran-mode} to switch to this major mode. This
command runs the hook @code{fortran-mode-hook}.
@iftex
@xref{Hooks,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Hooks}.
@end ifnottex
@cindex Fortran77 and Fortran90
@findex f90-mode
@findex fortran-mode
Fortran mode is meant for editing Fortran77 ``fixed format'' (and also
``tab format'') source code. For editing the modern Fortran90 or
Fortran95 ``free format'' source code, use F90 mode (@code{f90-mode}).
Emacs normally uses Fortran mode for files with extension @samp{.f},
@samp{.F} or @samp{.for}, and F90 mode for the extension @samp{.f90} and
@samp{.f95}. GNU Fortran supports both kinds of format.
@menu
* Motion: Fortran Motion. Moving point by statements or subprograms.
* Indent: Fortran Indent. Indentation commands for Fortran.
* Comments: Fortran Comments. Inserting and aligning comments.
* Autofill: Fortran Autofill. Auto fill support for Fortran.
* Columns: Fortran Columns. Measuring columns for valid Fortran.
* Abbrev: Fortran Abbrev. Built-in abbrevs for Fortran keywords.
@end menu
@node Fortran Motion
@subsection Motion Commands
In addition to the normal commands for moving by and operating on
``defuns'' (Fortran subprograms---functions and subroutines, as well as
modules for F90 mode), Fortran mode provides special commands to move by
statements and other program units.
@table @kbd
@kindex C-c C-n @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-next-statement
@findex f90-next-statement
@item C-c C-n
Move to the beginning of the next statement
(@code{fortran-next-statement}/@code{f90-next-statement}).
@kindex C-c C-p @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-previous-statement
@findex f90-previous-statement
@item C-c C-p
Move to the beginning of the previous statement
(@code{fortran-previous-statement}/@code{f90-previous-statement}).
If there is no previous statement (i.e. if called from the first
statement in the buffer), move to the start of the buffer.
@kindex C-c C-e @r{(F90 mode)}
@findex f90-next-block
@item C-c C-e
Move point forward to the start of the next code block
(@code{f90-next-block}). A code block is a subroutine,
@code{if}--@code{endif} statement, and so forth. This command exists
for F90 mode only, not Fortran mode. With a numeric argument, this
moves forward that many blocks.
@kindex C-c C-a @r{(F90 mode)}
@findex f90-previous-block
@item C-c C-a
Move point backward to the previous code block
(@code{f90-previous-block}). This is like @code{f90-next-block}, but
moves backwards.
@kindex C-M-n @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-end-of-block
@findex f90-end-of-block
@item C-M-n
Move to the end of the current code block
(@code{fortran-end-of-block}/@code{f90-end-of-block}). With a numeric
argument, move forward that number of blocks. The mark is set before
moving point. The F90 mode version of this command checks for
consistency of block types and labels (if present), but it does not
check the outermost block since that may be incomplete.
@kindex C-M-p @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-beginning-of-block
@findex f90-beginning-of-block
@item C-M-p
Move to the start of the current code block
(@code{fortran-beginning-of-block}/@code{f90-beginning-of-block}). This
is like @code{fortran-end-of-block}, but moves backwards.
@end table
@node Fortran Indent
@subsection Fortran Indentation
Special commands and features are needed for indenting Fortran code in
order to make sure various syntactic entities (line numbers, comment line
indicators and continuation line flags) appear in the columns that are
required for standard, fixed (or tab) format Fortran.
@menu
* Commands: ForIndent Commands. Commands for indenting and filling Fortran.
* Contline: ForIndent Cont. How continuation lines indent.
* Numbers: ForIndent Num. How line numbers auto-indent.
* Conv: ForIndent Conv. Conventions you must obey to avoid trouble.
* Vars: ForIndent Vars. Variables controlling Fortran indent style.
@end menu
@node ForIndent Commands
@subsubsection Fortran Indentation and Filling Commands
@table @kbd
@item C-M-j
Break the current line at point and set up a continuation line
(@code{fortran-split-line}).
@item M-^
Join this line to the previous line (@code{fortran-join-line}).
@item C-M-q
Indent all the lines of the subprogram point is in
(@code{fortran-indent-subprogram}).
@item M-q
Fill a comment block or statement.
@end table
@kindex C-M-q @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-indent-subprogram
The key @kbd{C-M-q} runs @code{fortran-indent-subprogram}, a command
to reindent all the lines of the Fortran subprogram (function or
subroutine) containing point.
@kindex C-M-j @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-split-line
The key @kbd{C-M-j} runs @code{fortran-split-line}, which splits
a line in the appropriate fashion for Fortran. In a non-comment line,
the second half becomes a continuation line and is indented
accordingly. In a comment line, both halves become separate comment
lines.
@kindex M-^ @r{(Fortran mode)}
@kindex C-c C-d @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-join-line
@kbd{M-^} or @kbd{C-c C-d} runs the command @code{fortran-join-line},
which joins a continuation line back to the previous line, roughly as
the inverse of @code{fortran-split-line}. The point must be on a
continuation line when this command is invoked.
@kindex M-q @r{(Fortran mode)}
@kbd{M-q} in Fortran mode fills the comment block or statement that
point is in. This removes any excess statement continuations.
@node ForIndent Cont
@subsubsection Continuation Lines
@cindex Fortran continuation lines
@vindex fortran-continuation-string
Most Fortran77 compilers allow two ways of writing continuation lines.
If the first non-space character on a line is in column 5, then that
line is a continuation of the previous line. We call this @dfn{fixed
format}. (In GNU Emacs we always count columns from 0; but note that
the Fortran standard counts from 1.) The variable
@code{fortran-continuation-string} specifies what character to put in
column 5. A line that starts with a tab character followed by any digit
except @samp{0} is also a continuation line. We call this style of
continuation @dfn{tab format}. (Fortran90 introduced ``free format,''
with another style of continuation lines).
@vindex indent-tabs-mode @r{(Fortran mode)}
@vindex fortran-analyze-depth
@vindex fortran-tab-mode-default
Fortran mode can use either style of continuation line. When you
enter Fortran mode, it tries to deduce the proper continuation style
automatically from the buffer contents. It does this by scanning up to
@code{fortran-analyze-depth} (default 100) lines from the start of the
buffer. The first line that begins with either a tab character or six
spaces determines the choice. If the scan fails (for example, if the
buffer is new and therefore empty), the value of
@code{fortran-tab-mode-default} (@code{nil} for fixed format, and
non-@code{nil} for tab format) is used. @samp{/t} in the mode line
indicates tab format is selected. Fortran mode sets the value of
@code{indent-tabs-mode} accordingly.
If the text on a line starts with the Fortran continuation marker
@samp{$}, or if it begins with any non-whitespace character in column
5, Fortran mode treats it as a continuation line. When you indent a
continuation line with @key{TAB}, it converts the line to the current
continuation style. When you split a Fortran statement with
@kbd{C-M-j}, the continuation marker on the newline is created according
to the continuation style.
The setting of continuation style affects several other aspects of
editing in Fortran mode. In fixed format mode, the minimum column
number for the body of a statement is 6. Lines inside of Fortran
blocks that are indented to larger column numbers always use only the
space character for whitespace. In tab format mode, the minimum
column number for the statement body is 8, and the whitespace before
column 8 must always consist of one tab character.
@node ForIndent Num
@subsubsection Line Numbers
If a number is the first non-whitespace in the line, Fortran
indentation assumes it is a line number and moves it to columns 0
through 4. (Columns always count from 0 in GNU Emacs.)
@vindex fortran-line-number-indent
Line numbers of four digits or less are normally indented one space.
The variable @code{fortran-line-number-indent} controls this; it
specifies the maximum indentation a line number can have. The default
value of the variable is 1. Fortran mode tries to prevent line number
digits passing column 4, reducing the indentation below the specified
maximum if necessary. If @code{fortran-line-number-indent} has the
value 5, line numbers are right-justified to end in column 4.
@vindex fortran-electric-line-number
Simply inserting a line number is enough to indent it according to
these rules. As each digit is inserted, the indentation is recomputed.
To turn off this feature, set the variable
@code{fortran-electric-line-number} to @code{nil}.
@node ForIndent Conv
@subsubsection Syntactic Conventions
Fortran mode assumes that you follow certain conventions that simplify
the task of understanding a Fortran program well enough to indent it
properly:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Two nested @samp{do} loops never share a @samp{continue} statement.
@item
Fortran keywords such as @samp{if}, @samp{else}, @samp{then}, @samp{do}
and others are written without embedded whitespace or line breaks.
Fortran compilers generally ignore whitespace outside of string
constants, but Fortran mode does not recognize these keywords if they
are not contiguous. Constructs such as @samp{else if} or @samp{end do}
are acceptable, but the second word should be on the same line as the
first and not on a continuation line.
@end itemize
@noindent
If you fail to follow these conventions, the indentation commands may
indent some lines unaesthetically. However, a correct Fortran program
retains its meaning when reindented even if the conventions are not
followed.
@node ForIndent Vars
@subsubsection Variables for Fortran Indentation
@vindex fortran-do-indent
@vindex fortran-if-indent
@vindex fortran-structure-indent
@vindex fortran-continuation-indent
@vindex fortran-check-all-num@dots{}
@vindex fortran-minimum-statement-indent@dots{}
Several additional variables control how Fortran indentation works:
@table @code
@item fortran-do-indent
Extra indentation within each level of @samp{do} statement (default 3).
@item fortran-if-indent
Extra indentation within each level of @samp{if}, @samp{select case}, or
@samp{where} statements (default 3).
@item fortran-structure-indent
Extra indentation within each level of @samp{structure}, @samp{union},
@samp{map}, or @samp{interface} statements (default 3).
@item fortran-continuation-indent
Extra indentation for bodies of continuation lines (default 5).
@item fortran-check-all-num-for-matching-do
In Fortran77, a numbered @samp{do} statement is ended by any statement
with a matching line number. It is common (but not compulsory) to use a
@samp{continue} statement for this purpose. If this variable has a
non-@code{nil} value, indenting any numbered statement must check for a
@samp{do} that ends there. If you always end @samp{do} statements with
a @samp{continue} line (or if you use the more modern @samp{enddo}),
then you can speed up indentation by setting this variable to
@code{nil}. The default is @code{nil}.
@item fortran-blink-matching-if
If this is @code{t}, indenting an @samp{endif} (or @samp{enddo}
statement moves the cursor momentarily to the matching @samp{if} (or
@samp{do}) statement to show where it is. The default is @code{nil}.
@item fortran-minimum-statement-indent-fixed
Minimum indentation for Fortran statements when using fixed format
continuation line style. Statement bodies are never indented less than
this much. The default is 6.
@item fortran-minimum-statement-indent-tab
Minimum indentation for Fortran statements for tab format continuation line
style. Statement bodies are never indented less than this much. The
default is 8.
@end table
The variables controlling the indentation of comments are described in
the following section.
@node Fortran Comments
@subsection Fortran Comments
The usual Emacs comment commands assume that a comment can follow a
line of code. In Fortran77, the standard comment syntax requires an
entire line to be just a comment. Therefore, Fortran mode replaces the
standard Emacs comment commands and defines some new variables.
@vindex fortran-comment-line-start
Fortran mode can also handle the Fortran90 comment syntax where comments
start with @samp{!} and can follow other text. Because only some Fortran77
compilers accept this syntax, Fortran mode will not insert such comments
unless you have said in advance to do so. To do this, set the variable
@code{fortran-comment-line-start} to @samp{"!"}.
@table @kbd
@item M-;
Align comment or insert new comment (@code{fortran-indent-comment}).
@item C-x ;
Applies to nonstandard @samp{!} comments only.
@item C-c ;
Turn all lines of the region into comments, or (with argument) turn them back
into real code (@code{fortran-comment-region}).
@end table
@findex fortran-indent-comment
@kbd{M-;} in Fortran mode is redefined as the command
@code{fortran-indent-comment}. Like the usual @kbd{M-;} command, this
recognizes any kind of existing comment and aligns its text appropriately;
if there is no existing comment, a comment is inserted and aligned. But
inserting and aligning comments are not the same in Fortran mode as in
other modes.
When a new comment must be inserted, if the current line is blank, a
full-line comment is inserted. On a non-blank line, a nonstandard @samp{!}
comment is inserted if you have said you want to use them. Otherwise a
full-line comment is inserted on a new line before the current line.
Nonstandard @samp{!} comments are aligned like comments in other
languages, but full-line comments are different. In a standard full-line
comment, the comment delimiter itself must always appear in column zero.
What can be aligned is the text within the comment. You can choose from
three styles of alignment by setting the variable
@code{fortran-comment-indent-style} to one of these values:
@vindex fortran-comment-indent-style
@vindex fortran-comment-line-extra-indent
@table @code
@item fixed
Align the text at a fixed column, which is the sum of
@code{fortran-comment-line-extra-indent} and the minimum statement
indentation. This is the default.
The minimum statement indentation is
@code{fortran-minimum-statement-indent-fixed} for fixed format
continuation line style and @code{fortran-minimum-statement-indent-tab}
for tab format style.
@item relative
Align the text as if it were a line of code, but with an additional
@code{fortran-comment-line-extra-indent} columns of indentation.
@item nil
Don't move text in full-line comments automatically.
@end table
@vindex fortran-comment-indent-char
In addition, you can specify the character to be used to indent within
full-line comments by setting the variable
@code{fortran-comment-indent-char} to the single-character string you want
to use.
@vindex fortran-directive-re
Compiler directive lines, or preprocessor lines, have much the same
appearance as comment lines. It is important, though, that such lines
never be indented at all, no matter what the value of
@code{fortran-comment-indent-style}. The variable
@code{fortran-directive-re} is a regular expression that specifies which
lines are directives. Matching lines are never indented, and receive
distinctive font-locking.
The normal Emacs comment command @kbd{C-x ;} has not been redefined. If
you use @samp{!} comments, this command can be used with them. Otherwise
it is useless in Fortran mode.
@kindex C-c ; @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-comment-region
@vindex fortran-comment-region
The command @kbd{C-c ;} (@code{fortran-comment-region}) turns all the
lines of the region into comments by inserting the string @samp{C$$$} at
the front of each one. With a numeric argument, it turns the region
back into live code by deleting @samp{C$$$} from the front of each line
in it. The string used for these comments can be controlled by setting
the variable @code{fortran-comment-region}. Note that here we have an
example of a command and a variable with the same name; these two uses
of the name never conflict because in Lisp and in Emacs it is always
clear from the context which one is meant.
@node Fortran Autofill
@subsection Auto Fill in Fortran Mode
Fortran mode has specialized support for Auto Fill mode, which is a
minor mode that automatically splits statements as you insert them
when they become too wide. Splitting a statement involves making
continuation lines using @code{fortran-continuation-string}
(@pxref{ForIndent Cont}). This splitting happens when you type
@key{SPC}, @key{RET}, or @key{TAB}, and also in the Fortran
indentation commands. You activate Auto Fill in Fortran mode in the
normal way.
@iftex
@xref{Auto Fill,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Auto Fill}.
@end ifnottex
@vindex fortran-break-before-delimiters
Auto Fill breaks lines at spaces or delimiters when the lines get
longer than the desired width (the value of @code{fill-column}). The
delimiters (besides whitespace) that Auto Fill can break at are
@samp{+}, @samp{-}, @samp{/}, @samp{*}, @samp{=}, @samp{<}, @samp{>},
and @samp{,}. The line break comes after the delimiter if the
variable @code{fortran-break-before-delimiters} is @code{nil}.
Otherwise (and by default), the break comes before the delimiter.
To enable Auto Fill in all Fortran buffers, add
@code{turn-on-auto-fill} to @code{fortran-mode-hook}.
@iftex
@xref{Hooks,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Hooks}.
@end ifnottex
@node Fortran Columns
@subsection Checking Columns in Fortran
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-r
Display a ``column ruler'' momentarily above the current line
(@code{fortran-column-ruler}).
@item C-c C-w
Split the current window horizontally temporarily so that it is 72
columns wide (@code{fortran-window-create-momentarily}). This may
help you avoid making lines longer than the 72-character limit that
some Fortran compilers impose.
@item C-u C-c C-w
Split the current window horizontally so that it is 72 columns wide
(@code{fortran-window-create}). You can then continue editing.
@item M-x fortran-strip-sequence-nos
Delete all text in column 72 and beyond.
@end table
@kindex C-c C-r @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-column-ruler
The command @kbd{C-c C-r} (@code{fortran-column-ruler}) shows a column
ruler momentarily above the current line. The comment ruler is two lines
of text that show you the locations of columns with special significance in
Fortran programs. Square brackets show the limits of the columns for line
numbers, and curly brackets show the limits of the columns for the
statement body. Column numbers appear above them.
Note that the column numbers count from zero, as always in GNU Emacs.
As a result, the numbers may be one less than those you are familiar
with; but the positions they indicate in the line are standard for
Fortran.
@vindex fortran-column-ruler-fixed
@vindex fortran-column-ruler-tabs
The text used to display the column ruler depends on the value of the
variable @code{indent-tabs-mode}. If @code{indent-tabs-mode} is
@code{nil}, then the value of the variable
@code{fortran-column-ruler-fixed} is used as the column ruler.
Otherwise, the value of the variable @code{fortran-column-ruler-tab} is
displayed. By changing these variables, you can change the column ruler
display.
@kindex C-c C-w @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-window-create-momentarily
@kbd{C-c C-w} (@code{fortran-window-create-momentarily}) temporarily
splits the current window horizontally, making a window 72 columns
wide, so you can see any lines that are too long. Type a space to
restore the normal width.
@kindex C-u C-c C-w @r{(Fortran mode)}
@findex fortran-window-create
You can also split the window horizontally and continue editing with
the split in place. To do this, use @kbd{C-u C-c C-w} (@code{M-x
fortran-window-create}). By editing in this window you can
immediately see when you make a line too wide to be correct Fortran.
@findex fortran-strip-sequence-nos
The command @kbd{M-x fortran-strip-sequence-nos} deletes all text in
column 72 and beyond, on all lines in the current buffer. This is the
easiest way to get rid of old sequence numbers.
@node Fortran Abbrev
@subsection Fortran Keyword Abbrevs
Fortran mode provides many built-in abbrevs for common keywords and
declarations. These are the same sort of abbrev that you can define
yourself. To use them, you must turn on Abbrev mode.
@iftex
@xref{Abbrevs,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Abbrevs}.
@end ifnottex
The built-in abbrevs are unusual in one way: they all start with a
semicolon. You cannot normally use semicolon in an abbrev, but Fortran
mode makes this possible by changing the syntax of semicolon to ``word
constituent.''
For example, one built-in Fortran abbrev is @samp{;c} for
@samp{continue}. If you insert @samp{;c} and then insert a punctuation
character such as a space or a newline, the @samp{;c} expands automatically
to @samp{continue}, provided Abbrev mode is enabled.@refill
Type @samp{;?} or @samp{;C-h} to display a list of all the built-in
Fortran abbrevs and what they stand for.
@ignore
arch-tag: 23ed7c36-1517-4646-9235-2d5ade5f06f6
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,
@c 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@ifclear justgnu
@node Manifesto,, Microsoft Windows, Top
@unnumbered The GNU Manifesto
@end ifclear
@ifset justgnu
Copyright @copyright{} 1985, 1993, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,
2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts being ``A GNU
Manual'', and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below. A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation
License'' in the Emacs manual.
(a) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: ``You have freedom to copy and modify
this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies published by the Free
Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.''
This document is part of a collection distributed under the GNU Free
Documentation License. If you want to distribute this document
separately from the collection, you can do so by adding a copy of the
license to the document, as described in section 6 of the license.
@node Top
@top The GNU Manifesto
@end ifset
@quotation
The GNU Manifesto which appears below was written by Richard Stallman at
the beginning of the GNU project, to ask for participation and support.
For the first few years, it was updated in minor ways to account for
developments, but now it seems best to leave it unchanged as most people
have seen it.
Since that time, we have learned about certain common misunderstandings
that different wording could help avoid. Footnotes added in 1993 help
clarify these points.
For up-to-date information about available GNU software, please see
our web site, @uref{http://www.gnu.org}. For software tasks and other
ways to contribute, see @uref{http://www.gnu.org/help}.
@end quotation
@unnumberedsec What's GNU? Gnu's Not Unix!
GNU, which stands for Gnu's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
away free to everyone who can use it.@footnote{The wording here was
careless. The intention was that nobody would have to pay for
@emph{permission} to use the GNU system. But the words don't make this
clear, and people often interpret them as saying that copies of GNU
should always be distributed at little or no charge. That was never the
intent; later on, the manifesto mentions the possibility of companies
providing the service of distribution for a profit. Subsequently I have
learned to distinguish carefully between ``free'' in the sense of
freedom and ``free'' in the sense of price. Free software is software
that users have the freedom to distribute and change. Some users may
obtain copies at no charge, while others pay to obtain copies---and if
the funds help support improving the software, so much the better. The
important thing is that everyone who has a copy has the freedom to
cooperate with others in using it.} Several other volunteers are helping
me. Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are greatly
needed.
So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands,
a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, a linker, and
around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is nearly completed. A
new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled itself and may be released
this year. An initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to
emulate Unix. When the kernel and compiler are finished, it will be
possible to distribute a GNU system suitable for program development. We
will use @TeX{} as our text formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We
will use the free, portable X window system as well. After this we will
add a portable Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of
other things, plus on-line documentation. We hope to supply, eventually,
everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.
GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to Unix.
We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our experience
with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to have longer
file names, file version numbers, a crashproof file system, file name
completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and perhaps
eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several Lisp programs
and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C and Lisp will be
available as system programming languages. We will try to support UUCP,
MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for communication.
GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with virtual
memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run on. The extra
effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left to someone who wants
to use it on them.
To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word `GNU'
when it is the name of this project.
@unnumberedsec Why I Must Write GNU
I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must
share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to divide
the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share with
others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this way. I
cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software
license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial Intelligence
Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities, but eventually
they had gone too far: I could not remain in an institution where such
things are done for me against my will.
So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have decided to
put together a sufficient body of free software so that I will be able to
get along without any software that is not free. I have resigned from the
AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent me from giving GNU away.
@unnumberedsec Why GNU Will Be Compatible with Unix
Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential features
of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what Unix lacks
without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix would be
convenient for many other people to adopt.
@unnumberedsec How GNU Will Be Available
GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to modify and
redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to restrict its
further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary modifications will not
be allowed. I want to make sure that all versions of GNU remain free.
@unnumberedsec Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help
I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and want to
help.
Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them to
feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel as
comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used essentially
forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The purchaser of software
must choose between friendship and obeying the law. Naturally, many decide
that friendship is more important. But those who believe in law often do
not feel at ease with either choice. They become cynical and think that
programming is just a way of making money.
By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can be
hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as an
example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in sharing.
This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if we use
software that is not free. For about half the programmers I talk to, this
is an important happiness that money cannot replace.
@unnumberedsec How You Can Contribute
I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money.
I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.
One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU will run
on them at an early date. The machines should be complete, ready to use
systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not in need of
sophisticated cooling or power.
I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time work for
GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would be very hard
to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not work together.
But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this problem is absent. A
complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility programs, each of which
is documented separately. Most interface specifications are fixed by Unix
compatibility. If each contributor can write a compatible replacement for
a single Unix utility, and make it work properly in place of the original
on a Unix system, then these utilities will work right when put together.
Even allowing for Murphy to create a few unexpected problems, assembling
these components will be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer
communication and will be worked on by a small, tight group.)
If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full or
part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but I'm
looking for people for whom building community spirit is as important as
making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated people to devote
their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them the need to make a
living in another way.
@unnumberedsec Why All Computer Users Will Benefit
Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system
software free, just like air.@footnote{This is another place I failed to
distinguish carefully between the two different meanings of ``free.''
The statement as it stands is not false---you can get copies of GNU
software at no charge, from your friends or over the net. But it does
suggest the wrong idea.}
This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix license.
It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will
be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the
art.
Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result, a user
who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them himself,
or hire any available programmer or company to make them for him. Users
will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company which owns the
sources and is in sole position to make changes.
Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment by
encouraging all students to study and improve the system code. Harvard's
computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be installed on
the system if its sources were not on public display, and upheld it by
actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very much inspired by
this.
Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software and what
one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.
Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including licensing of
copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through the cumbersome
mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is, which programs) a
person must pay for. And only a police state can force everyone to obey
them. Consider a space station where air must be manufactured at great
cost: charging each breather per liter of air may be fair, but wearing the
metered gas mask all day and all night is intolerable even if everyone can
afford to pay the air bill. And the TV cameras everywhere to see if you
ever take the mask off are outrageous. It's better to support the air
plant with a head tax and chuck the masks.
Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free.
@unnumberedsec Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals
@quotation
``Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't rely
on any support.''
``You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
support.''
@end quotation
If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free without
service, a company to provide just service to people who have obtained GNU
free ought to be profitable.@footnote{Several such companies now exist.}
We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming work
and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on from a
software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough people, the
vendor will tell you to get lost.
If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way is to
have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any available
person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any individual.
With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of consideration for most
businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is still possible for there to
be no available competent person, but this problem cannot be blamed on
distribution arrangements. GNU does not eliminate all the world's problems,
only some of them.
Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need handholding:
doing things for them which they could easily do themselves but don't know
how.
Such services could be provided by companies that sell just hand-holding
and repair service. If it is true that users would rather spend money and
get a product with service, they will also be willing to buy the service
having got the product free. The service companies will compete in quality
and price; users will not be tied to any particular one. Meanwhile, those
of us who don't need the service should be able to use the program without
paying for the service.
@quotation
``You cannot reach many people without advertising,
and you must charge for the program to support that.''
``It's no use advertising a program people can get free.''
@end quotation
There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be used to
inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But it may be
true that one can reach more microcomputer users with advertising. If this
is really so, a business which advertises the service of copying and
mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful enough to pay for its
advertising and more. This way, only the users who benefit from the
advertising pay for it.
On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and such
companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not really
necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates don't
want to let the free market decide this?@footnote{The Free Software
Foundation raises most of its funds from a distribution service,
although it is a charity rather than a company. If @emph{no one}
chooses to obtain copies by ordering from the FSF, it will be unable
to do its work. But this does not mean that proprietary restrictions
are justified to force every user to pay. If a small fraction of all
the users order copies from the FSF, that is sufficient to keep the FSF
afloat. So we ask users to choose to support us in this way. Have you
done your part?}
@quotation
``My company needs a proprietary operating system
to get a competitive edge.''
@end quotation
GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of competition.
You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but neither will your
competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and they will compete in
other areas, while benefiting mutually in this one. If your business is
selling an operating system, you will not like GNU, but that's tough on
you. If your business is something else, GNU can save you from being
pushed into the expensive business of selling operating systems.
I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.@footnote{A group of
computer companies recently pooled funds to support maintenance of the
GNU C Compiler.}
@quotation
``Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?''
@end quotation
If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution. Creativity can
be a social contribution, but only in so far as society is free to use the
results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for creating innovative
programs, by the same token they deserve to be punished if they restrict
the use of these programs.
@quotation
``Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his creativity?''
@end quotation
There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to maximize
one's income, as long as one does not use means that are destructive. But
the means customary in the field of software today are based on
destruction.
Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of it is
destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the ways that
the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth that humanity
derives from the program. When there is a deliberate choice to restrict,
the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.
The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to become
wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become poorer from the
mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or, the Golden Rule.
Since I do not like the consequences that result if everyone hoards
information, I am required to consider it wrong for one to do so.
Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity does not
justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that creativity.
@quotation
``Won't programmers starve?''
@end quotation
I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us cannot
manage to get any money for standing on the street and making faces. But
we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives standing on the
street making faces, and starving. We do something else.
But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's implicit
assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers cannot possibly
be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing.
The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
now.
Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software. It is
the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it were
prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would move to
other bases of organization which are now used less often. There are
always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.
Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it is
now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not considered
an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they now do. If
programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice either. (In
practice they would still make considerably more than that.)
@quotation
``Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is used?''
@end quotation
``Control over the use of one's ideas'' really constitutes control over
other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
difficult.
People who have studied the issue of intellectual property
rights@footnote{In the 80s I had not yet realized how confusing it was
to speak of ``the issue'' of ``intellectual property.'' That term is
obviously biased; more subtle is the fact that it lumps together
various disparate laws which raise very different issues. Nowadays I
urge people to reject the term ``intellectual property'' entirely,
lest it lead others to suppose that those laws form one coherent
issue. The way to be clear is to discuss patents, copyrights, and
trademarks separately. See
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml} for more
explanation of how this term spreads confusion and bias.} carefully
(such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to intellectual
property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property rights that the
government recognizes were created by specific acts of legislation for
specific purposes.
For example, the patent system was established to encourage inventors to
disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was to help society
rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life span of 17 years for
a patent was short compared with the rate of advance of the state of the
art. Since patents are an issue only among manufacturers, for whom the
cost and effort of a license agreement are small compared with setting up
production, the patents often do not do much harm. They do not obstruct
most individuals who use patented products.
The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This
practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have survived
even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for the purpose
of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was
invented---books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
press---it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
who read the books.
All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole would
benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we have to ask:
are we really better off granting such license? What kind of act are we
licensing a person to do?
The case of programs today is very different from that of books a hundred
years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is from one
neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source code and
object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is used rather
than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in which a person who
enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole both materially and
spiritually; in which a person should not do so regardless of whether the
law enables him to.
@quotation
``Competition makes things get done better.''
@end quotation
The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this way,
it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it always works
this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered and become
intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other strategies---such as,
attacking other runners. If the runners get into a fist fight, they will
all finish late.
Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners in a
fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem to
object to fights; he just regulates them (``For every ten yards you run,
you can fire one shot''). He really ought to break them up, and penalize
runners for even trying to fight.
@quotation
``Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?''
@end quotation
Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary incentive.
Programming has an irresistible fascination for some people, usually the
people who are best at it. There is no shortage of professional musicians
who keep at it even though they have no hope of making a living that way.
But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate to the
situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become less. So
the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced monetary
incentive? My experience shows that they will.
For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked at the
Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could have had
anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards: fame and
appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a reward in itself.
Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same interesting
work for a lot of money.
What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other than
riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they will
come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly in
competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly if the
high-paying ones are banned.
@quotation
``We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we
stop helping our neighbors, we have to obey.''
@end quotation
You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!
@quotation
``Programmers need to make a living somehow.''
@end quotation
In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways that
programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a program.
This way is customary now because it brings programmers and businessmen the
most money, not because it is the only way to make a living. It is easy to
find other ways if you want to find them. Here are a number of examples.
A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
operating systems onto the new hardware.
The sale of teaching, hand-holding and maintenance services could also
employ programmers.
People with new ideas could distribute programs as
freeware@footnote{Subsequently we have discovered the need to
distinguish between ``free software'' and ``freeware''. The term
``freeware'' means software you are free to redistribute, but usually
you are not free to study and change the source code, so most of it is
not free software. See
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html} for more
explanation.}, asking for donations from satisfied users, or selling
hand-holding services. I have met people who are already working this
way successfully.
Users with related needs can form users' groups, and pay dues. A group
would contract with programming companies to write programs that the
group's members would like to use.
All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:
@quotation
Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay x percent of
the price as a software tax. The government gives this to
an agency like the NSF to spend on software development.
But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to
the project of his own choosing---often, chosen because he hopes to
use the results when it is done. He can take a credit for any amount
of donation up to the total tax he had to pay.
The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of
the tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.
The consequences:
@itemize @bullet
@item
The computer-using community supports software development.
@item
This community decides what level of support is needed.
@item
Users who care which projects their share is spent on
can choose this for themselves.
@end itemize
@end quotation
In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the post-scarcity
world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to make a living.
People will be free to devote themselves to activities that are fun, such
as programming, after spending the necessary ten hours a week on required
tasks such as legislation, family counseling, robot repair and asteroid
prospecting. There will be no need to be able to make a living from
programming.
We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole society
must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this has
translated itself into leisure for workers because much nonproductive
activity is required to accompany productive activity. The main causes of
this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against competition. Free
software will greatly reduce these drains in the area of software
production. We must do this, in order for technical gains in productivity
to translate into less work for us.
@ignore
arch-tag: 21eb38f8-6fa0-480a-91cd-f3dab7148542
@end ignore

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@ -0,0 +1,721 @@
@c The GNU General Public License.
@center Version 3, 29 June 2007
@c This file is intended to be included within another document,
@c hence no sectioning command or @node.
@display
Copyright @copyright{} 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @url{http://fsf.org/}
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed.
@end display
@heading Preamble
The GNU General Public License is a free, copyleft license for
software and other kinds of works.
The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed
to take away your freedom to share and change the works. By contrast,
the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom
to share and change all versions of a program---to make sure it remains
free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation,
use the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it
applies also to any other work released this way by its authors. You
can apply it to your programs, too.
When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
them if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you
want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new
free programs, and that you know you can do these things.
To protect your rights, we need to prevent others from denying you
these rights or asking you to surrender the rights. Therefore, you
have certain responsibilities if you distribute copies of the
software, or if you modify it: responsibilities to respect the freedom
of others.
For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
gratis or for a fee, you must pass on to the recipients the same
freedoms that you received. You must make sure that they, too,
receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these
terms so they know their rights.
Developers that use the GNU GPL protect your rights with two steps:
(1) assert copyright on the software, and (2) offer you this License
giving you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify it.
For the developers' and authors' protection, the GPL clearly explains
that there is no warranty for this free software. For both users' and
authors' sake, the GPL requires that modified versions be marked as
changed, so that their problems will not be attributed erroneously to
authors of previous versions.
Some devices are designed to deny users access to install or run
modified versions of the software inside them, although the
manufacturer can do so. This is fundamentally incompatible with the
aim of protecting users' freedom to change the software. The
systematic pattern of such abuse occurs in the area of products for
individuals to use, which is precisely where it is most unacceptable.
Therefore, we have designed this version of the GPL to prohibit the
practice for those products. If such problems arise substantially in
other domains, we stand ready to extend this provision to those
domains in future versions of the GPL, as needed to protect the
freedom of users.
Finally, every program is threatened constantly by software patents.
States should not allow patents to restrict development and use of
software on general-purpose computers, but in those that do, we wish
to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a free program
could make it effectively proprietary. To prevent this, the GPL
assures that patents cannot be used to render the program non-free.
The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
modification follow.
@heading TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@enumerate 0
@item Definitions.
``This License'' refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License.
``Copyright'' also means copyright-like laws that apply to other kinds
of works, such as semiconductor masks.
``The Program'' refers to any copyrightable work licensed under this
License. Each licensee is addressed as ``you''. ``Licensees'' and
``recipients'' may be individuals or organizations.
To ``modify'' a work means to copy from or adapt all or part of the work
in a fashion requiring copyright permission, other than the making of
an exact copy. The resulting work is called a ``modified version'' of
the earlier work or a work ``based on'' the earlier work.
A ``covered work'' means either the unmodified Program or a work based
on the Program.
To ``propagate'' a work means to do anything with it that, without
permission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for
infringement under applicable copyright law, except executing it on a
computer or modifying a private copy. Propagation includes copying,
distribution (with or without modification), making available to the
public, and in some countries other activities as well.
To ``convey'' a work means any kind of propagation that enables other
parties to make or receive copies. Mere interaction with a user
through a computer network, with no transfer of a copy, is not
conveying.
An interactive user interface displays ``Appropriate Legal Notices'' to
the extent that it includes a convenient and prominently visible
feature that (1) displays an appropriate copyright notice, and (2)
tells the user that there is no warranty for the work (except to the
extent that warranties are provided), that licensees may convey the
work under this License, and how to view a copy of this License. If
the interface presents a list of user commands or options, such as a
menu, a prominent item in the list meets this criterion.
@item Source Code.
The ``source code'' for a work means the preferred form of the work for
making modifications to it. ``Object code'' means any non-source form
of a work.
A ``Standard Interface'' means an interface that either is an official
standard defined by a recognized standards body, or, in the case of
interfaces specified for a particular programming language, one that
is widely used among developers working in that language.
The ``System Libraries'' of an executable work include anything, other
than the work as a whole, that (a) is included in the normal form of
packaging a Major Component, but which is not part of that Major
Component, and (b) serves only to enable use of the work with that
Major Component, or to implement a Standard Interface for which an
implementation is available to the public in source code form. A
``Major Component'', in this context, means a major essential component
(kernel, window system, and so on) of the specific operating system
(if any) on which the executable work runs, or a compiler used to
produce the work, or an object code interpreter used to run it.
The ``Corresponding Source'' for a work in object code form means all
the source code needed to generate, install, and (for an executable
work) run the object code and to modify the work, including scripts to
control those activities. However, it does not include the work's
System Libraries, or general-purpose tools or generally available free
programs which are used unmodified in performing those activities but
which are not part of the work. For example, Corresponding Source
includes interface definition files associated with source files for
the work, and the source code for shared libraries and dynamically
linked subprograms that the work is specifically designed to require,
such as by intimate data communication or control flow between those
subprograms and other parts of the work.
The Corresponding Source need not include anything that users can
regenerate automatically from other parts of the Corresponding Source.
The Corresponding Source for a work in source code form is that same
work.
@item Basic Permissions.
All rights granted under this License are granted for the term of
copyright on the Program, and are irrevocable provided the stated
conditions are met. This License explicitly affirms your unlimited
permission to run the unmodified Program. The output from running a
covered work is covered by this License only if the output, given its
content, constitutes a covered work. This License acknowledges your
rights of fair use or other equivalent, as provided by copyright law.
You may make, run and propagate covered works that you do not convey,
without conditions so long as your license otherwise remains in force.
You may convey covered works to others for the sole purpose of having
them make modifications exclusively for you, or provide you with
facilities for running those works, provided that you comply with the
terms of this License in conveying all material for which you do not
control copyright. Those thus making or running the covered works for
you must do so exclusively on your behalf, under your direction and
control, on terms that prohibit them from making any copies of your
copyrighted material outside their relationship with you.
Conveying under any other circumstances is permitted solely under the
conditions stated below. Sublicensing is not allowed; section 10
makes it unnecessary.
@item Protecting Users' Legal Rights From Anti-Circumvention Law.
No covered work shall be deemed part of an effective technological
measure under any applicable law fulfilling obligations under article
11 of the WIPO copyright treaty adopted on 20 December 1996, or
similar laws prohibiting or restricting circumvention of such
measures.
When you convey a covered work, you waive any legal power to forbid
circumvention of technological measures to the extent such
circumvention is effected by exercising rights under this License with
respect to the covered work, and you disclaim any intention to limit
operation or modification of the work as a means of enforcing, against
the work's users, your or third parties' legal rights to forbid
circumvention of technological measures.
@item Conveying Verbatim Copies.
You may convey verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you
receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and
appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice;
keep intact all notices stating that this License and any
non-permissive terms added in accord with section 7 apply to the code;
keep intact all notices of the absence of any warranty; and give all
recipients a copy of this License along with the Program.
You may charge any price or no price for each copy that you convey,
and you may offer support or warranty protection for a fee.
@item Conveying Modified Source Versions.
You may convey a work based on the Program, or the modifications to
produce it from the Program, in the form of source code under the
terms of section 4, provided that you also meet all of these
conditions:
@enumerate a
@item
The work must carry prominent notices stating that you modified it,
and giving a relevant date.
@item
The work must carry prominent notices stating that it is released
under this License and any conditions added under section 7. This
requirement modifies the requirement in section 4 to ``keep intact all
notices''.
@item
You must license the entire work, as a whole, under this License to
anyone who comes into possession of a copy. This License will
therefore apply, along with any applicable section 7 additional terms,
to the whole of the work, and all its parts, regardless of how they
are packaged. This License gives no permission to license the work in
any other way, but it does not invalidate such permission if you have
separately received it.
@item
If the work has interactive user interfaces, each must display
Appropriate Legal Notices; however, if the Program has interactive
interfaces that do not display Appropriate Legal Notices, your work
need not make them do so.
@end enumerate
A compilation of a covered work with other separate and independent
works, which are not by their nature extensions of the covered work,
and which are not combined with it such as to form a larger program,
in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
``aggregate'' if the compilation and its resulting copyright are not
used to limit the access or legal rights of the compilation's users
beyond what the individual works permit. Inclusion of a covered work
in an aggregate does not cause this License to apply to the other
parts of the aggregate.
@item Conveying Non-Source Forms.
You may convey a covered work in object code form under the terms of
sections 4 and 5, provided that you also convey the machine-readable
Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, in one of these
ways:
@enumerate a
@item
Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product
(including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by the
Corresponding Source fixed on a durable physical medium customarily
used for software interchange.
@item
Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product
(including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by a written
offer, valid for at least three years and valid for as long as you
offer spare parts or customer support for that product model, to give
anyone who possesses the object code either (1) a copy of the
Corresponding Source for all the software in the product that is
covered by this License, on a durable physical medium customarily used
for software interchange, for a price no more than your reasonable
cost of physically performing this conveying of source, or (2) access
to copy the Corresponding Source from a network server at no charge.
@item
Convey individual copies of the object code with a copy of the written
offer to provide the Corresponding Source. This alternative is
allowed only occasionally and noncommercially, and only if you
received the object code with such an offer, in accord with subsection
6b.
@item
Convey the object code by offering access from a designated place
(gratis or for a charge), and offer equivalent access to the
Corresponding Source in the same way through the same place at no
further charge. You need not require recipients to copy the
Corresponding Source along with the object code. If the place to copy
the object code is a network server, the Corresponding Source may be
on a different server (operated by you or a third party) that supports
equivalent copying facilities, provided you maintain clear directions
next to the object code saying where to find the Corresponding Source.
Regardless of what server hosts the Corresponding Source, you remain
obligated to ensure that it is available for as long as needed to
satisfy these requirements.
@item
Convey the object code using peer-to-peer transmission, provided you
inform other peers where the object code and Corresponding Source of
the work are being offered to the general public at no charge under
subsection 6d.
@end enumerate
A separable portion of the object code, whose source code is excluded
from the Corresponding Source as a System Library, need not be
included in conveying the object code work.
A ``User Product'' is either (1) a ``consumer product'', which means any
tangible personal property which is normally used for personal,
family, or household purposes, or (2) anything designed or sold for
incorporation into a dwelling. In determining whether a product is a
consumer product, doubtful cases shall be resolved in favor of
coverage. For a particular product received by a particular user,
``normally used'' refers to a typical or common use of that class of
product, regardless of the status of the particular user or of the way
in which the particular user actually uses, or expects or is expected
to use, the product. A product is a consumer product regardless of
whether the product has substantial commercial, industrial or
non-consumer uses, unless such uses represent the only significant
mode of use of the product.
``Installation Information'' for a User Product means any methods,
procedures, authorization keys, or other information required to
install and execute modified versions of a covered work in that User
Product from a modified version of its Corresponding Source. The
information must suffice to ensure that the continued functioning of
the modified object code is in no case prevented or interfered with
solely because modification has been made.
If you convey an object code work under this section in, or with, or
specifically for use in, a User Product, and the conveying occurs as
part of a transaction in which the right of possession and use of the
User Product is transferred to the recipient in perpetuity or for a
fixed term (regardless of how the transaction is characterized), the
Corresponding Source conveyed under this section must be accompanied
by the Installation Information. But this requirement does not apply
if neither you nor any third party retains the ability to install
modified object code on the User Product (for example, the work has
been installed in ROM).
The requirement to provide Installation Information does not include a
requirement to continue to provide support service, warranty, or
updates for a work that has been modified or installed by the
recipient, or for the User Product in which it has been modified or
installed. Access to a network may be denied when the modification
itself materially and adversely affects the operation of the network
or violates the rules and protocols for communication across the
network.
Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information provided,
in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly
documented (and with an implementation available to the public in
source code form), and must require no special password or key for
unpacking, reading or copying.
@item Additional Terms.
``Additional permissions'' are terms that supplement the terms of this
License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions.
Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall
be treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent
that they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions
apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately
under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by
this License without regard to the additional permissions.
When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option
remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of
it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own
removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place
additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work,
for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you
add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders
of that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms:
@enumerate a
@item
Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability differently from the terms
of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or
@item
Requiring preservation of specified reasonable legal notices or author
attributions in that material or in the Appropriate Legal Notices
displayed by works containing it; or
@item
Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of that material, or
requiring that modified versions of such material be marked in
reasonable ways as different from the original version; or
@item
Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or
authors of the material; or
@item
Declining to grant rights under trademark law for use of some trade
names, trademarks, or service marks; or
@item
Requiring indemnification of licensors and authors of that material by
anyone who conveys the material (or modified versions of it) with
contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, for any
liability that these contractual assumptions directly impose on those
licensors and authors.
@end enumerate
All other non-permissive additional terms are considered ``further
restrictions'' within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you
received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is
governed by this License along with a term that is a further
restriction, you may remove that term. If a license document contains
a further restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this
License, you may add to a covered work material governed by the terms
of that license document, provided that the further restriction does
not survive such relicensing or conveying.
If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you
must place, in the relevant source files, a statement of the
additional terms that apply to those files, or a notice indicating
where to find the applicable terms.
Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the
form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the
above requirements apply either way.
@item Termination.
You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or
modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under
this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third
paragraph of section 11).
However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally,
unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally
terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder
fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to
60 days after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is
reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the
violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have
received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after
your receipt of the notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same
material under section 10.
@item Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies.
You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run
a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work
occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission
to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. However,
nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or
modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do
not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a
covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so.
@item Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients.
Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically
receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and
propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible
for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License.
An ``entity transaction'' is a transaction transferring control of an
organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an
organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered
work results from an entity transaction, each party to that
transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever
licenses to the work the party's predecessor in interest had or could
give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession of the
Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in interest, if
the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable efforts.
You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the
rights granted or affirmed under this License. For example, you may
not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of
rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation
(including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that
any patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for
sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it.
@item Patents.
A ``contributor'' is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this
License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The
work thus licensed is called the contributor's ``contributor version''.
A contributor's ``essential patent claims'' are all patent claims owned
or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or
hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted
by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version,
but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a
consequence of further modification of the contributor version. For
purposes of this definition, ``control'' includes the right to grant
patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of
this License.
Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free
patent license under the contributor's essential patent claims, to
make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and
propagate the contents of its contributor version.
In the following three paragraphs, a ``patent license'' is any express
agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent
(such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to
sue for patent infringement). To ``grant'' such a patent license to a
party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a
patent against the party.
If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license,
and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone
to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a
publicly available network server or other readily accessible means,
then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so
available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the
patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner
consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent
license to downstream recipients. ``Knowingly relying'' means you have
actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the
covered work in a country, or your recipient's use of the covered work
in a country, would infringe one or more identifiable patents in that
country that you have reason to believe are valid.
If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or
arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a
covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties
receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify
or convey a specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license
you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered
work and works based on it.
A patent license is ``discriminatory'' if it does not include within the
scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on
the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specifically
granted under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you
are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the
business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the
third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the
work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties
who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent
license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by
you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in
connection with specific products or compilations that contain the
covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent
license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting
any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may
otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law.
@item No Surrender of Others' Freedom.
If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey
a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under
this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a
consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree
to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying
from those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could
satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely
from conveying the Program.
@item Use with the GNU Affero General Public License.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have
permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed
under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single
combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this
License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work,
but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License,
section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the
combination as such.
@item Revised Versions of this License.
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions
of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program
specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public
License ``or any later version'' applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or
of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If
the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General
Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free
Software Foundation.
If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions
of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxy's public
statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to
choose that version for the Program.
Later license versions may give you additional or different
permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any
author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a
later version.
@item Disclaimer of Warranty.
THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY
APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT
HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM ``AS IS'' WITHOUT
WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND
PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE
DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR
CORRECTION.
@item Limitation of Liability.
IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR
CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES,
INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT
NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR
LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM
TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER
PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
@item Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16.
If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided
above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms,
reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates
an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the
Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a
copy of the Program in return for a fee.
@end enumerate
@heading END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@heading How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
terms.
To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest
to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
the ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
@smallexample
@var{one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.}
Copyright (C) @var{year} @var{name of author}
This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at
your option) any later version.
This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU
General Public License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program. If not, see @url{http://www.gnu.org/licenses/}.
@end smallexample
Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short
notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
@smallexample
@var{program} Copyright (C) @var{year} @var{name of author}
This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type @samp{show w}.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type @samp{show c} for details.
@end smallexample
The hypothetical commands @samp{show w} and @samp{show c} should show
the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your
program's commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would
use an ``about box''.
You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school,
if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if necessary.
For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see
@url{http://www.gnu.org/licenses/}.
The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your
program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine
library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary
applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use
the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But
first, please read @url{http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html}.
@ignore
arch-tag: 0c4a2556-f87e-464f-9b1d-efd920fcaf67
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Help, Mark, M-x, Top
@chapter Help
@kindex Help
@cindex help
@cindex self-documentation
@findex help-command
@kindex C-h
@kindex F1
Emacs provides extensive help features, all accessible through the
@dfn{help character}, @kbd{C-h}. This is a prefix key that is used
for commands that display documentation; the next character you type
should be a @dfn{help options}, to ask for a particular kind of help.
You can cancel the @kbd{C-h} command with @kbd{C-g}. The function key
@key{F1} is equivalent to @kbd{C-h}.
@kindex C-h C-h
@findex help-for-help
@kbd{C-h} itself is one of the help options; @kbd{C-h C-h} displays
a list of help options, with a brief description of each one
(@code{help-for-help}). You can scroll the list with @key{SPC} and
@key{DEL}, then type the help option you want. To cancel, type
@kbd{C-g}.
@kbd{C-h} or @key{F1} means ``help'' in various other contexts as
well. For instance, you can type them after a prefix key to display
list of the keys that can follow the prefix key. (A few prefix keys
don't support @kbd{C-h} in this way, because they define other
meanings for it, but they all support @key{F1} for help.)
Most help buffers use a special major mode, Help mode, which lets
you scroll conveniently with @key{SPC} and @key{DEL}. You can also
follow hyperlinks to URLs, and to other facilities including Info
nodes and customization buffers. @xref{Help Mode}.
@cindex searching documentation efficiently
@cindex looking for a subject in documentation
If you are looking for a certain feature, but don't know what it is
called or where to look, we recommend three methods. First, try an
apropos command, then try searching the manual index, then look in the
FAQ and the package keywords.
@table @kbd
@item C-h a @var{topics} @key{RET}
This searches for commands whose names match the argument
@var{topics}. The argument can be a keyword, a list of keywords, or a
regular expression (@pxref{Regexps}). This command displays all the
matches in a new buffer. @xref{Apropos}.
@item C-h i d m emacs @key{RET} i @var{topic} @key{RET}
This searches for @var{topic} in the indices of the on-line Emacs
manual, and displays the first match found. Press @kbd{,} to see
subsequent matches. You can use a regular expression as @var{topic}.
@item C-h i d m emacs @key{RET} s @var{topic} @key{RET}
Similar, but searches the @emph{text} of the manual rather than the
indices.
@item C-h C-f
This displays the Emacs FAQ. You can use the Info commands
to browse it.
@item C-h p
This displays the available Emacs packages based on keywords.
@xref{Library Keywords}.
@end table
@menu
* Help Summary:: Brief list of all Help commands.
* Key Help:: Asking what a key does in Emacs.
* Name Help:: Asking about a command, variable or function name.
* Apropos:: Asking what pertains to a given topic.
* Help Mode:: Special features of Help mode and Help buffers.
* Library Keywords:: Finding Lisp libraries by keywords (topics).
* Language Help:: Help relating to international language support.
* Misc Help:: Other help commands.
* Help Files:: Commands to display pre-written help files.
* Help Echo:: Help on active text and tooltips (`balloon help')
@end menu
@iftex
@node Help Summary
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@node Help Summary
@section Help Summary
@end ifnottex
Here is a summary of the Emacs interactive help commands. (The
character that follows @kbd{C-h} is the ``help option.'') @xref{Help
Files}, for other help commands that display fixed files of
information.
@table @kbd
@item C-h a @var{topics} @key{RET}
Display a list of commands whose names match @var{topics}
(@code{apropos-command}; @pxref{Apropos}).
@item C-h b
Display all active key bindings; minor mode bindings first, then those
of the major mode, then global bindings (@code{describe-bindings}).
@item C-h c @var{key}
Given a key sequence @var{key}, show the name of the command that it
runs (@code{describe-key-briefly}). Here @kbd{c} stands for
``character.'' For more extensive information on @var{key}, use
@kbd{C-h k}.
@item C-h d @var{topics} @key{RET}
Display the commands and variables whose documentation matches
@var{topics} (@code{apropos-documentation}).
@item C-h e
Display the @code{*Messages*} buffer
(@code{view-echo-area-messages}).
@item C-h f @var{function} @key{RET}
Display documentation on the Lisp function named @var{function}
(@code{describe-function}). Since commands are Lisp functions,
this works for commands too.
@item C-h h
Display the @file{HELLO} file, which shows examples of various character
sets.
@item C-h i
Run Info, the GNU documentation browser (@code{info}).
The complete Emacs manual is available on-line in Info.
@item C-h k @var{key}
Display the name and documentation of the command that @var{key} runs
(@code{describe-key}).
@item C-h l
Display a description of the last 100 characters you typed
(@code{view-lossage}).
@item C-h m
Display documentation of the current major mode (@code{describe-mode}).
@item C-h p
Find packages by topic keyword (@code{finder-by-keyword}).
@item C-h s
Display the current contents of the syntax table, with an explanation of
what they mean (@code{describe-syntax}). @xref{Syntax}.
@item C-h t
Enter the Emacs interactive tutorial (@code{help-with-tutorial}).
@item C-h v @var{var} @key{RET}
Display the documentation of the Lisp variable @var{var}
(@code{describe-variable}).
@item C-h w @var{command} @key{RET}
Show which keys run the command named @var{command} (@code{where-is}).
@item C-h C @var{coding} @key{RET}
Describe the coding system @var{coding}
(@code{describe-coding-system}).
@item C-h C @key{RET}
Describe the coding systems currently in use.
@item C-h I @var{method} @key{RET}
Describe the input method @var{method} (@code{describe-input-method}).
@item C-h L @var{language-env} @key{RET}
Display information on the character sets, coding systems, and input
methods used in language environment @var{language-env}
(@code{describe-language-environment}).
@item C-h F @var{function} @key{RET}
Enter Info and goes to the node that documents the Emacs function
@var{function} (@code{Info-goto-emacs-command-node}).
@item C-h K @var{key}
Enter Info and goes to the node that documents the key sequence
@var{key} (@code{Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node}).
@item C-h S @var{symbol} @key{RET}
Display the Info documentation on symbol @var{symbol} according to the
programming language you are editing (@code{info-lookup-symbol}).
@item C-h .
Display the help message for a special text area, if point is in one
(@code{display-local-help}). (These include, for example, links in
@samp{*Help*} buffers.)
@end table
@node Key Help
@section Documentation for a Key
@kindex C-h c
@findex describe-key-briefly
The help commands to get information about a key sequence are
@kbd{C-h c} and @w{@kbd{C-h k}}. @kbd{C-h c @var{key}} displays in
the echo area the name of the command that @var{key} is bound to. For
example, @kbd{C-h c C-f} displays @samp{forward-char}. Since command
names are chosen to describe what the commands do, this gives you a
very brief description of what @var{key} does.
@kindex C-h k
@findex describe-key
@kbd{C-h k @var{key}} is similar but gives more information: it
displays the documentation string of the command as well as its name.
It displays this information in a window, since it may not fit in the
echo area.
@kindex C-h K
@findex Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node
To find the documentation of a key sequence @var{key}, type @kbd{C-h
K @var{key}}. This displays the appropriate manual section which
contains the documentation of @var{key}.
@kbd{C-h c}, @kbd{C-h k} and @kbd{C-h K} work for any sort of key
sequences, including function keys, menus, and mouse events. For
instance, after @kbd{C-h k} you can select a menu item from the menu
bar, to view the documentation string of the command it runs.
@kindex C-h w
@findex where-is
@kbd{C-h w @var{command} @key{RET}} lists the keys that are bound to
@var{command}. It displays the list in the echo area. If it says the
command is not on any key, that means you must use @kbd{M-x} to run
it. @kbd{C-h w} runs the command @code{where-is}.
@node Name Help
@section Help by Command or Variable Name
@kindex C-h f
@findex describe-function
@kbd{C-h f @var{function} @key{RET}} (@code{describe-function})
displays the documentation of Lisp function @var{function}, in a
window. Since commands are Lisp functions, you can use this method to
view the documentation of any command whose name you know. For
example,
@example
C-h f auto-fill-mode @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
displays the documentation of @code{auto-fill-mode}. This is the only
way to get the documentation of a command that is not bound to any key
(one which you would normally run using @kbd{M-x}).
@kbd{C-h f} is also useful for Lisp functions that you use in a Lisp
program. For example, if you have just written the expression
@code{(make-vector len)} and want to check that you are using
@code{make-vector} properly, type @kbd{C-h f make-vector @key{RET}}.
Because @kbd{C-h f} allows all function names, not just command names,
you may find that some of your favorite completion abbreviations that
work in @kbd{M-x} don't work in @kbd{C-h f}. An abbreviation that is
unique among command names may not be unique among all function names.
If you type @kbd{C-h f @key{RET}}, it describes the function called
by the innermost Lisp expression in the buffer around point,
@emph{provided} that function name is a valid, defined Lisp function.
(That name appears as the default while you enter the argument.) For
example, if point is located following the text @samp{(make-vector
(car x)}, the innermost list containing point is the one that starts
with @samp{(make-vector}, so @kbd{C-h f @key{RET}} will describe the
function @code{make-vector}.
@kbd{C-h f} is also useful just to verify that you spelled a
function name correctly. If the minibuffer prompt for @kbd{C-h f}
shows the function name from the buffer as the default, it means that
name is defined as a Lisp function. Type @kbd{C-g} to cancel the
@kbd{C-h f} command if you don't really want to view the
documentation.
@kindex C-h v
@findex describe-variable
@kbd{C-h v} (@code{describe-variable}) is like @kbd{C-h f} but
describes Lisp variables instead of Lisp functions. Its default is
the Lisp symbol around or before point, if that is the name of a
defined Lisp variable. @xref{Variables}.
Help buffers that describe Emacs variables and functions normally
have hyperlinks to the corresponding source definition, if you have
the source files installed. (@xref{Hyperlinking}.) If you know Lisp
(or C), this provides the ultimate documentation. If you don't know
Lisp, you should learn it. (The Introduction to Emacs Lisp
Programming, available from the FSF through fsf.org, is a good way to
get started.) If Emacs feels you are just @emph{using} it, treating
it as an object program, its feelings may be hurt. For real intimacy,
read the Emacs source code.
@kindex C-h F
@findex Info-goto-emacs-command-node
To find a function's documentation in a manual, use @kbd{C-h F}
(@code{Info-goto-emacs-command-node}). This knows about various
manuals, not just the Emacs manual, and finds the right one.
@node Apropos
@section Apropos
The @dfn{apropos} commands answer questions like, ``What are the
commands for working with files?'' More precisely, you specify an
@dfn{apropos pattern}, which means either a word, a list of words, or
a regular expression. Each apropos command displays a list of items
that match the pattern, in a separate buffer.
@table @kbd
@item C-h a @var{pattern} @key{RET}
Search for commands whose names match @var{pattern}.
@item M-x apropos @key{RET} @var{pattern} @key{RET}
Search for functions and variables whose names match @var{pattern}.
Both interactive functions (commands) and noninteractive functions can
be found by this command.
@item M-x apropos-variable @key{RET} @var{pattern} @key{RET}
Search for user-option variables whose names match @var{pattern}.
@item M-x apropos-value @key{RET} @var{pattern} @key{RET}
Search for functions whose definitions @var{pattern}, and variables
whose values match @var{pattern}.
@item C-h d @var{pattern} @key{RET}
Search for functions and variables whose @strong{documentation
strings} match @var{pattern}.
@end table
@kindex C-h a
@findex apropos-command
@cindex apropos
The simplest kind of apropos pattern is one word. Anything which
contains that word matches the pattern. Thus, to find the commands
that work on files, type @kbd{C-h a file @key{RET}}. This displays a
list of all command names that contain @samp{file}, including
@code{copy-file}, @code{find-file}, and so on. Each command name
comes with a brief description and a list of keys you can currently
invoke it with. In our example, it would say that you can invoke
@code{find-file} by typing @kbd{C-x C-f}.
The @kbd{a} in @kbd{C-h a} stands for ``Apropos''; @kbd{C-h a}
runs the command @code{apropos-command}. This command normally checks
only commands (interactive functions); if you specify a prefix
argument, it checks noninteractive functions as well.
For more information about a function definition, variable or symbol
property listed in the apropos buffer, you can click on it with
@kbd{Mouse-1} or @kbd{Mouse-2}, or move there and type @key{RET}.
When you specify more than one word in the apropos pattern, a name
must contain at least two of the words in order to match. Thus, if
you are looking for commands to kill a chunk of text before point, you
could try @kbd{C-h a kill back backward behind before @key{RET}}. The
real command name @code{kill-backward} will match that; if there were
a command @code{kill-text-before}, it would also match, since it
contains two of the specified words.
For even greater flexibility, you can specify a regular expression
(@pxref{Regexps}). An apropos pattern is interpreted as a regular
expression if it contains any of the regular expression special
characters, @samp{^$*+?.\[}.
Following the conventions for naming Emacs commands, here are some
words that you'll find useful in apropos patterns. By using them in
@kbd{C-h a}, you will also get a feel for the naming conventions.
@quotation
char, line, word, sentence, paragraph, region, page, sexp, list, defun,
rect, buffer, frame, window, face, file, dir, register, mode, beginning, end,
forward, backward, next, previous, up, down, search, goto, kill, delete,
mark, insert, yank, fill, indent, case, change, set, what, list, find,
view, describe, default.
@end quotation
@findex apropos
Use @kbd{M-x apropos} instead of @kbd{C-h a} to list all the Lisp
symbols that match an apropos pattern, not just the symbols that are
commands. This command does not list key bindings by default; specify
a numeric argument if you want it to list them.
@findex apropos-variable
Use @kbd{M-x apropos-variable} to list user-customizable variables
that match an apropos pattern. If you specify a prefix argument, it
lists all matching variables.
@kindex C-h d
@findex apropos-documentation
The @code{apropos-documentation} command is like @code{apropos}
except that it searches documentation strings instead of symbol names
for matches.
@findex apropos-value
The @code{apropos-value} command is like @code{apropos} except that
it searches variables' values for matches for the apropos pattern.
With a prefix argument, it also checks symbols' function definitions
and property lists.
@vindex apropos-do-all
If the variable @code{apropos-do-all} is non-@code{nil}, the apropos
commands always behave as if they had been given a prefix argument.
@vindex apropos-sort-by-scores
@cindex apropos search results, order by score
By default, apropos lists the search results in alphabetical order.
If the variable @code{apropos-sort-by-scores} is non-@code{nil}, the
apropos commands try to guess the relevance of each result, and
display the most relevant ones first.
@vindex apropos-documentation-sort-by-scores
By default, apropos lists the search results for
@code{apropos-documentation} in order of relevance of the match. If
the variable @code{apropos-documentation-sort-by-scores} is
@code{nil}, apropos lists the symbols found in alphabetical order.
@node Help Mode
@section Help Mode Commands
Help buffers provide the same commands as View mode (@pxref{Misc File
Ops}), plus a few special commands of their own.
@table @kbd
@item @key{SPC}
Scroll forward.
@item @key{DEL}
Scroll backward.
@item @key{RET}
Follow a cross reference at point.
@item @key{TAB}
Move point forward to the next cross reference.
@item S-@key{TAB}
Move point back to the previous cross reference.
@item Mouse-1
@itemx Mouse-2
Follow a cross reference that you click on.
@item C-c C-c
Show all documentation about the symbol at point.
@end table
When a function name (@pxref{M-x,, Running Commands by Name}),
variable name (@pxref{Variables}), or face name (@pxref{Faces})
appears in the documentation, it normally appears inside paired
single-quotes. To view the documentation of that command, variable or
face, you can click on the name with @kbd{Mouse-1} or @kbd{Mouse-2},
or move point there and type @key{RET}. Use @kbd{C-c C-b} to retrace
your steps.
@cindex URL, viewing in help
@cindex help, viewing web pages
@cindex viewing web pages in help
@cindex web pages, viewing in help
@findex browse-url
You can follow cross references to URLs (web pages) also. This uses
the @code{browse-url} command to view the page in the browser you
choose. @xref{Browse-URL}.
@kindex @key{TAB} @r{(Help mode)}
@findex help-next-ref
@kindex S-@key{TAB} @r{(Help mode)}
@findex help-previous-ref
There are convenient commands to move point to cross references in
the help text. @key{TAB} (@code{help-next-ref}) moves point down to
the next cross reference. @kbd{S-@key{TAB}} moves up to the previous
cross reference (@code{help-previous-ref}).
To view all documentation about any symbol name that appears in the
text, move point to the symbol name and type @kbd{C-c C-c}
(@code{help-follow-symbol}). This shows all available documentation
about the symbol as a variable, function and/or face. As above, use
@kbd{C-c C-b} to retrace your steps.
@node Library Keywords
@section Keyword Search for Lisp Libraries
@kindex C-h p
@findex finder-by-keyword
The @kbd{C-h p} command lets you search the standard Emacs Lisp
libraries by topic keywords. Here is a partial list of keywords you can
use:
@multitable {convenience} {aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa}
@item abbrev@tab abbreviation handling, typing shortcuts, macros.
@item bib@tab code related to the @code{bib} bibliography processor.
@item c@tab support for the C language and related languages.
@item calendar@tab calendar and time management support.
@item comm@tab communications, networking, remote access to files.
@item convenience@tab convenience features for faster editing.
@item data@tab support for editing files of data.
@item docs@tab support for Emacs documentation.
@item emulations@tab emulations of other editors.
@item extensions@tab Emacs Lisp language extensions.
@item faces@tab support for multiple fonts.
@item files@tab support for editing and manipulating files.
@item frames@tab support for Emacs frames and window systems.
@item games@tab games, jokes and amusements.
@item hardware@tab support for interfacing with exotic hardware.
@item help@tab support for on-line help systems.
@item hypermedia@tab support for links between text or other media types.
@item i18n@tab internationalization and alternate character-set support.
@item internal@tab code for Emacs internals, build process, defaults.
@item languages@tab specialized modes for editing programming languages.
@item lisp@tab Lisp support, including Emacs Lisp.
@item local@tab code local to your site.
@item maint@tab maintenance aids for the Emacs development group.
@item mail@tab modes for electronic-mail handling.
@item matching@tab various sorts of searching and matching.
@item mouse@tab mouse support.
@item multimedia@tab images and sound support.
@item news@tab support for netnews reading and posting.
@item oop@tab support for object-oriented programming.
@item outlines@tab support for hierarchical outlining.
@item processes@tab process, subshell, compilation, and job control support.
@item terminals@tab support for terminal types.
@item tex@tab supporting code for the @TeX{} formatter.
@item tools@tab programming tools.
@item unix@tab front-ends/assistants for, or emulators of, UNIX-like features.
@item wp@tab word processing.
@end multitable
@node Language Help
@section Help for International Language Support
You can use the command @kbd{C-h L}
(@code{describe-language-environment}) to get information about a
specific language environment. @xref{Language Environments}. This
tells you which languages this language environment supports. It also
lists the character sets, coding systems, and input methods that work
with this language environment, and finally shows some sample text to
illustrate scripts.
The command @kbd{C-h h} (@code{view-hello-file}) displays the file
@file{etc/HELLO}, which shows how to say ``hello'' in many languages.
The command @kbd{C-h I} (@code{describe-input-method}) describes an
input method---either a specified input method, or by default the
input method currently in use. @xref{Input Methods}.
The command @kbd{C-h C} (@code{describe-coding-system}) describes
coding systems---either a specified coding system, or the ones
currently in use. @xref{Coding Systems}.
@node Misc Help
@section Other Help Commands
@kindex C-h i
@findex info
@cindex Info
@cindex manuals, on-line
@cindex on-line manuals
@kbd{C-h i} (@code{info}) runs the Info program, which browses
structured documentation files. The entire Emacs manual is available
within Info, along with many other manuals for the GNU system. Type
@kbd{h} after entering Info to run a tutorial on using Info.
@cindex find Info manual by its file name
With a numeric argument @var{n}, @kbd{C-h i} selects the Info buffer
@samp{*info*<@var{n}>}. This is useful if you want to browse multiple
Info manuals simultaneously. If you specify just @kbd{C-u} as the
prefix argument, @kbd{C-h i} prompts for the name of a documentation
file, so you can browse a file which doesn't have an entry in the
top-level Info menu.
The help commands @kbd{C-h F @var{function} @key{RET}} and @kbd{C-h
K @var{key}}, described above, enter Info and go straight to the
documentation of @var{function} or @var{key}.
@kindex C-h S
@findex info-lookup-symbol
When editing a program, if you have an Info version of the manual
for the programming language, you can use @kbd{C-h S}
(@code{info-lookup-symbol}) to find symbol (keyword, function or
variable) in the proper manual. The details of how this command works
depend on the major mode.
@kindex C-h l
@findex view-lossage
If something surprising happens, and you are not sure what you
typed, use @kbd{C-h l} (@code{view-lossage}). @kbd{C-h l} displays
the last 100 characters you typed in Emacs. If you see commands that
you don't know, you can use @kbd{C-h c} to find out what they do.
@kindex C-h e
@findex view-echo-area-messages
To review recent echo area messages, use @kbd{C-h e}
(@code{view-echo-area-messages}). This displays the buffer
@code{*Messages*}, where those messages are kept.
@kindex C-h m
@findex describe-mode
Each Emacs major mode typically redefines a few keys and makes other
changes in how editing works. @kbd{C-h m} (@code{describe-mode})
displays documentation on the current major mode, which normally
describes the commands and features that are changed in this mode.
@kindex C-h b
@findex describe-bindings
@kbd{C-h b} (@code{describe-bindings}) and @kbd{C-h s}
(@code{describe-syntax}) show other information about the current
environment within Emacs. @kbd{C-h b} displays a list of all the key
bindings now in effect: first the local bindings of the current minor
modes, then the local bindings defined by the current major mode, and
finally the global bindings (@pxref{Key Bindings}). @kbd{C-h s}
displays the contents of the syntax table, with explanations of each
character's syntax (@pxref{Syntax}).
You can get a list of subcommands for a particular prefix key by
typing @kbd{C-h} after the prefix key. (There are a few prefix keys
for which this does not work---those that provide their own bindings
for @kbd{C-h}. One of these is @key{ESC}, because @kbd{@key{ESC} C-h}
is actually @kbd{C-M-h}, which marks a defun.)
@node Help Files
@section Help Files
The Emacs help commands described above display dynamic help based
on the current state within Emacs, or refer to manuals. Other help
commands display pre-written, static help files. These commands all
have the form @kbd{C-h C-@var{char}}; that is, @kbd{C-h} followed by a
control character.
@kindex C-h C-c
@findex describe-copying
@kindex C-h C-d
@findex describe-distribution
@kindex C-h C-e
@findex view-emacs-problems
@kindex C-h C-f
@findex view-emacs-FAQ
@kindex C-h C-n
@findex view-emacs-news
@kindex C-h C-p
@findex describe-project
@kindex C-h C-t
@findex view-emacs-todo
@kindex C-h C-w
@findex describe-no-warranty
@table @kbd
@item C-h C-c
Display the Emacs copying conditions (@code{describe-copying}).
These are the rules under which you can copy and redistribute Emacs.
@item C-h C-d
Display how to download or order the latest version of
Emacs and other GNU software (@code{describe-distribution}).
@item C-h C-e
Display the list of known Emacs problems, sometimes with suggested
workarounds (@code{view-emacs-problems}).
@item C-h C-f
Display the Emacs frequently-answered-questions list (@code{view-emacs-FAQ}).
@item C-h C-n
Display the Emacs ``news'' file, which lists new features in the most
recent version of Emacs (@code{view-emacs-news}).
@item C-h C-p
Display general information about the GNU Project
(@code{describe-project}).
@item C-h C-t
Display the Emacs to-do list (@code{view-todo}).
@item C-h C-w
Display the full details on the complete absence of warranty for GNU
Emacs (@code{describe-no-warranty}).
@end table
@node Help Echo
@section Help on Active Text and Tooltips
@cindex tooltips
@cindex balloon help
When a region of text is ``active,'' so that you can select it with
the mouse or a key like @kbd{RET}, it often has associated help text.
For instance, most parts of the mode line have help text. On
graphical displays, the help text is displayed as a ``tooltip''
(sometimes known as ``balloon help''), when you move the mouse over
the active text. @xref{Tooltips}. On some systems, it is shown in
the echo area. On text-only terminals, if Emacs cannot follow the
mouse, it cannot show the help text on mouse-over.
@kindex C-h .
@findex display-local-help
@vindex help-at-pt-display-when-idle
You can also access text region help info using the keyboard. The
command @kbd{C-h .} (@code{display-local-help}) displays any help text
associated with the text at point, using the echo area. If you want
help text to be displayed automatically whenever it is available at
point, set the variable @code{help-at-pt-display-when-idle} to
@code{t}.
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Indentation, Text, Major Modes, Top
@chapter Indentation
@cindex indentation
@cindex columns (indentation)
This chapter describes the Emacs commands that add, remove, or
adjust indentation.
@table @kbd
@item @key{TAB}
Indent the current line ``appropriately'' in a mode-dependent fashion.
@item @kbd{C-j}
Perform @key{RET} followed by @key{TAB} (@code{newline-and-indent}).
@item M-^
Merge the previous and the current line (@code{delete-indentation}).
This would cancel the effect of a preceding @kbd{C-j}.
@item C-M-o
Split the current line at point; text on the line after point becomes a
new line indented to the same column where point is located
(@code{split-line}).
@item M-m
Move (forward or back) to the first nonblank character on the current
line (@code{back-to-indentation}).
@item C-M-\
Indent lines in the region to the same column (@code{indent-region}).
@item C-x @key{TAB}
Shift lines in the region rigidly right or left (@code{indent-rigidly}).
@item M-i
Indent from point to the next prespecified tab stop column
(@code{tab-to-tab-stop}).
@item M-x indent-relative
Indent from point to under an indentation point in the previous line.
@end table
Emacs supports four general categories of operations that could all
be called `indentation':
@enumerate
@item
Insert a tab character. You can type @kbd{C-q @key{TAB}} to do this.
A tab character is displayed as a stretch of whitespace which extends
to the next display tab stop position, and the default width of a tab
stop is eight. @xref{Text Display}, for more details.
@item
Insert whitespace up to the next tab stop. You can set tab stops at
your choice of column positions, then type @kbd{M-i} to advance to the
next tab stop. The default tab stop settings have a tab stop every
eight columns, which means by default @kbd{M-i} inserts a tab
character. To set the tab stops, use @kbd{M-x edit-tab-stops}.
@item
Align a line with the previous line. More precisely, the command
@kbd{M-x indent-relative} indents the current line under the beginning
of some word in the previous line. In Fundamental mode and in Text
mode, @key{TAB} runs the command @code{indent-relative}.
@item
The most sophisticated method is @dfn{syntax-driven indentation}.
Most programming languages have an indentation convention. For Lisp
code, lines are indented according to their nesting in parentheses. C
code uses the same general idea, but many details are different.
@kindex TAB
Type @key{TAB} to do syntax-driven indentation, in a mode that
supports it. It realigns the current line according with the syntax
of the preceding lines. No matter where in the line you are when you
type @key{TAB}, it aligns the line as a whole.
@end enumerate
Normally, most of the above methods insert an optimal mix of tabs and
spaces to align to the desired column. @xref{Just Spaces}, for how to
disable use of tabs. However, @kbd{C-q @key{TAB}} always inserts a
tab, even when tabs are disabled for the indentation commands.
@menu
* Indentation Commands:: Various commands and techniques for indentation.
* Tab Stops:: You can set arbitrary "tab stops" and then
indent to the next tab stop when you want to.
* Just Spaces:: You can request indentation using just spaces.
@end menu
@node Indentation Commands, Tab Stops, Indentation, Indentation
@section Indentation Commands and Techniques
@kindex M-m
@findex back-to-indentation
To move over the indentation on a line, do @kbd{M-m}
(@code{back-to-indentation}). This command, given anywhere on a line,
positions point at the first nonblank character on the line, if any,
or else at the end of the line.
To insert an indented line before the current line, do @kbd{C-a C-o
@key{TAB}}. To make an indented line after the current line, use
@kbd{C-e C-j}.
If you just want to insert a tab character in the buffer, you can type
@kbd{C-q @key{TAB}}.
@kindex C-M-o
@findex split-line
@kbd{C-M-o} (@code{split-line}) moves the text from point to the end of
the line vertically down, so that the current line becomes two lines.
@kbd{C-M-o} first moves point forward over any spaces and tabs. Then it
inserts after point a newline and enough indentation to reach the same
column point is on. Point remains before the inserted newline; in this
regard, @kbd{C-M-o} resembles @kbd{C-o}.
@kindex M-^
@findex delete-indentation
To join two lines cleanly, use the @kbd{M-^}
(@code{delete-indentation}) command. It deletes the indentation at
the front of the current line, and the line boundary as well,
replacing them with a single space. As a special case (useful for
Lisp code) the single space is omitted if the characters to be joined
are consecutive open parentheses or closing parentheses, or if the
junction follows another newline. To delete just the indentation of a
line, go to the beginning of the line and use @kbd{M-\}
(@code{delete-horizontal-space}), which deletes all spaces and tabs
around the cursor.
If you have a fill prefix, @kbd{M-^} deletes the fill prefix if it
appears after the newline that is deleted. @xref{Fill Prefix}.
@kindex C-M-\
@kindex C-x TAB
@findex indent-region
@findex indent-rigidly
There are also commands for changing the indentation of several lines
at once. They apply to all the lines that begin in the region.
@kbd{C-M-\} (@code{indent-region}) indents each line in the ``usual''
way, as if you had typed @key{TAB} at the beginning of the line. A
numeric argument specifies the column to indent to, and each line is
shifted left or right so that its first nonblank character appears in
that column. @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} (@code{indent-rigidly}) moves all of
the lines in the region right by its argument (left, for negative
arguments). The whole group of lines moves rigidly sideways, which is
how the command gets its name.
@cindex remove indentation
To remove all indentation from all of the lines in the region,
invoke @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} with a large negative argument, such as
-1000.
@findex indent-relative
@kbd{M-x indent-relative} indents at point based on the previous line
(actually, the last nonempty line). It inserts whitespace at point, moving
point, until it is underneath the next indentation point in the previous line.
An indentation point is the end of a sequence of whitespace or the end of
the line. If point is farther right than any indentation point in the
previous line, @code{indent-relative} runs @code{tab-to-tab-stop}
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Tab Stops}),
@end ifnottex
@iftex
(see next section),
@end iftex
unless it is called with a numeric argument, in which case it does
nothing.
@xref{Format Indentation}, for another way of specifying the
indentation for part of your text.
@node Tab Stops, Just Spaces, Indentation Commands, Indentation
@section Tab Stops
@cindex tab stops
@cindex using tab stops in making tables
@cindex tables, indentation for
@kindex M-i
@findex tab-to-tab-stop
For typing in tables, you can use @kbd{M-i} (@code{tab-to-tab-stop}).
This command inserts indentation before point, enough to reach the
next tab stop column.
@findex edit-tab-stops
@findex edit-tab-stops-note-changes
@kindex C-c C-c @r{(Edit Tab Stops)}
@vindex tab-stop-list
You can specify the tab stops used by @kbd{M-i}. They are stored in a
variable called @code{tab-stop-list}, as a list of column-numbers in
increasing order.
The convenient way to set the tab stops is with @kbd{M-x
edit-tab-stops}, which creates and selects a buffer containing a
description of the tab stop settings. You can edit this buffer to
specify different tab stops, and then type @kbd{C-c C-c} to make those
new tab stops take effect. The buffer uses Overwrite mode
(@pxref{Minor Modes}). @code{edit-tab-stops} records which buffer was
current when you invoked it, and stores the tab stops back in that
buffer; normally all buffers share the same tab stops and changing
them in one buffer affects all, but if you happen to make
@code{tab-stop-list} local in one buffer then @code{edit-tab-stops} in
that buffer will edit the local settings.
Here is what the text representing the tab stops looks like for ordinary
tab stops every eight columns.
@example
: : : : : :
0 1 2 3 4
0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
To install changes, type C-c C-c
@end example
The first line contains a colon at each tab stop. The remaining lines
are present just to help you see where the colons are and know what to do.
Note that the tab stops that control @code{tab-to-tab-stop} have nothing
to do with displaying tab characters in the buffer. @xref{Text Display},
for more information on that.
@node Just Spaces,, Tab Stops, Indentation
@section Tabs vs. Spaces
@vindex indent-tabs-mode
Emacs normally uses both tabs and spaces to indent lines. If you
prefer, all indentation can be made from spaces only. To request
this, set @code{indent-tabs-mode} to @code{nil}. This is a per-buffer
variable, so altering the variable affects only the current buffer,
but there is a default value which you can change as well.
@xref{Locals}.
A tab is not always displayed in the same way. By default, tabs are
eight columns wide, but some people like to customize their tools to
use a different tab width. So by using spaces only, you can make sure
that your file looks the same regardless of the tab width setting.
@findex tabify
@findex untabify
There are also commands to convert tabs to spaces or vice versa, always
preserving the columns of all nonblank text. @kbd{M-x tabify} scans the
region for sequences of spaces, and converts sequences of at least two
spaces to tabs if that can be done without changing indentation. @kbd{M-x
untabify} changes all tabs in the region to appropriate numbers of spaces.
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Killing, Yanking, Mark, Top
@chapter Killing and Moving Text
@ifnottex
@raisesections
@end ifnottex
@dfn{Killing} means erasing text and copying it into the @dfn{kill
ring}, from which you can bring it back into the buffer by
@dfn{yanking} it. (Some systems use the terms ``cutting'' and
``pasting'' for these operations.) This is the most common way of
moving or copying text within Emacs. Killing and yanking is very safe
because Emacs remembers several recent kills, not just the last one.
It is versatile, because the many commands for killing syntactic units
can also be used for moving those units. But there are other ways of
copying text for special purposes.
@iftex
@section Deletion and Killing
@end iftex
@cindex killing text
@cindex cutting text
@cindex deletion
Most commands which erase text from the buffer save it in the kill
ring. These commands are known as @dfn{kill} commands. The commands
that erase text but do not save it in the kill ring are known as
@dfn{delete} commands. The @kbd{C-x u} (@code{undo}) command
(@pxref{Undo}) can undo both kill and delete commands; the importance
of the kill ring is that you can also yank the text in a different
place or places. Emacs has only one kill ring for all buffers, so you
can kill text in one buffer and yank it in another buffer.
The delete commands include @kbd{C-d} (@code{delete-char}) and
@key{DEL} (@code{delete-backward-char}), which delete only one
character at a time, and those commands that delete only spaces or
newlines. Commands that can erase significant amounts of nontrivial
data generally do a kill operation instead. The commands' names and
individual descriptions use the words @samp{kill} and @samp{delete} to
say which kind of operation they perform.
@vindex kill-read-only-ok
@cindex read-only text, killing
You cannot kill read-only text, since such text does not allow any
kind of modification. But some users like to use the kill commands to
copy read-only text into the kill ring, without actually changing it.
Therefore, the kill commands work specially in a read-only buffer:
they move over text, and copy it to the kill ring, without actually
deleting it from the buffer. Normally, kill commands beep and display
an error message when this happens. But if you set the variable
@code{kill-read-only-ok} to a non-@code{nil} value, they just print a
message in the echo area to explain why the text has not been erased.
You can also use the mouse to kill and yank. @xref{Cut and Paste}.
@menu
* Deletion:: Commands for deleting small amounts of text and
blank areas.
* Killing by Lines:: How to kill entire lines of text at one time.
* Other Kill Commands:: Commands to kill large regions of text and
syntactic units such as words and sentences.
@end menu
@need 1500
@node Deletion
@subsection Deletion
@findex delete-backward-char
@findex delete-char
Deletion means erasing text and not saving it in the kill ring. For
the most part, the Emacs commands that delete text are those that
erase just one character or only whitespace.
@table @kbd
@item C-d
@itemx @key{DELETE}
Delete next character (@code{delete-char}). If your keyboard has a
@key{DELETE} function key (usually located in the edit keypad), Emacs
binds it to @code{delete-char} as well.
@item @key{DEL}
@itemx @key{BS}
Delete previous character (@code{delete-backward-char}).
@item M-\
Delete spaces and tabs around point (@code{delete-horizontal-space}).
@item M-@key{SPC}
Delete spaces and tabs around point, leaving one space
(@code{just-one-space}).
@item C-x C-o
Delete blank lines around the current line (@code{delete-blank-lines}).
@item M-^
Join two lines by deleting the intervening newline, along with any
indentation following it (@code{delete-indentation}).
@end table
@kindex DEL
@kindex C-d
The most basic delete commands are @kbd{C-d} (@code{delete-char}) and
@key{DEL} (@code{delete-backward-char}). @kbd{C-d} deletes the
character after point, the one the cursor is ``on top of.'' This
doesn't move point. @key{DEL} deletes the character before the cursor,
and moves point back. You can delete newlines like any other characters
in the buffer; deleting a newline joins two lines. Actually, @kbd{C-d}
and @key{DEL} aren't always delete commands; when given arguments, they
kill instead, since they can erase more than one character this way.
@kindex BACKSPACE
@kindex BS
@kindex DELETE
Every keyboard has a large key which is a short distance above the
@key{RET} or @key{ENTER} key and is normally used for erasing what you
have typed. It may be labeled @key{DEL}, @key{BACKSPACE}, @key{BS},
@key{DELETE}, or even with a left arrow. Regardless of the label on
the key, in Emacs it called @key{DEL}, and it should delete one
character backwards.
Many keyboards (including standard PC keyboards) have a
@key{BACKSPACE} key a short ways above @key{RET} or @key{ENTER}, and a
@key{DELETE} key elsewhere. In that case, the @key{BACKSPACE} key is
@key{DEL}, and the @key{DELETE} key is equivalent to @kbd{C-d}---or it
should be.
Why do we say ``or it should be''? When Emacs starts up using a
graphical display, it determines automatically which key or keys should be
equivalent to @key{DEL}. As a result, @key{BACKSPACE} and/or @key{DELETE}
keys normally do the right things. But in some unusual cases Emacs
gets the wrong information from the system. If these keys don't do
what they ought to do, you need to tell Emacs which key to use for
@key{DEL}. @xref{DEL Does Not Delete}, for how to do this.
@findex normal-erase-is-backspace-mode
On most text-only terminals, Emacs cannot tell which keys the
keyboard really has, so it follows a uniform plan which may or may not
fit your keyboard. The uniform plan is that the @acronym{ASCII} @key{DEL}
character deletes, and the @acronym{ASCII} @key{BS} (backspace) character asks
for help (it is the same as @kbd{C-h}). If this is not right for your
keyboard, such as if you find that the key which ought to delete backwards
enters Help instead, see @ref{DEL Does Not Delete}.
@kindex M-\
@findex delete-horizontal-space
@kindex M-SPC
@findex just-one-space
The other delete commands are those which delete only whitespace
characters: spaces, tabs and newlines. @kbd{M-\}
(@code{delete-horizontal-space}) deletes all the spaces and tab
characters before and after point. With a prefix argument, this only
deletes spaces and tab characters before point. @kbd{M-@key{SPC}}
(@code{just-one-space}) does likewise but leaves a single space after
point, regardless of the number of spaces that existed previously
(even if there were none before). With a numeric argument @var{n}, it
leaves @var{n} spaces after point.
@kbd{C-x C-o} (@code{delete-blank-lines}) deletes all blank lines
after the current line. If the current line is blank, it deletes all
blank lines preceding the current line as well (leaving one blank line,
the current line). On a solitary blank line, it deletes that line.
@kbd{M-^} (@code{delete-indentation}) joins the current line and the
previous line, by deleting a newline and all surrounding spaces, usually
leaving a single space. @xref{Indentation,M-^}.
@node Killing by Lines
@subsection Killing by Lines
@table @kbd
@item C-k
Kill rest of line or one or more lines (@code{kill-line}).
@item C-S-backspace
Kill an entire line at once (@code{kill-whole-line})
@end table
@kindex C-k
@findex kill-line
The simplest kill command is @kbd{C-k}. If given at the beginning of
a line, it kills all the text on the line, leaving it blank. When used
on a blank line, it kills the whole line including its newline. To kill
an entire non-blank line, go to the beginning and type @kbd{C-k} twice.
More generally, @kbd{C-k} kills from point up to the end of the line,
unless it is at the end of a line. In that case it kills the newline
following point, thus merging the next line into the current one.
Spaces and tabs that you can't see at the end of the line are ignored
when deciding which case applies, so if point appears to be at the end
of the line, you can be sure @kbd{C-k} will kill the newline.
When @kbd{C-k} is given a positive argument, it kills that many lines
and the newlines that follow them (however, text on the current line
before point is not killed). With a negative argument @minus{}@var{n}, it
kills @var{n} lines preceding the current line (together with the text
on the current line before point). Thus, @kbd{C-u - 2 C-k} at the front
of a line kills the two previous lines.
@kbd{C-k} with an argument of zero kills the text before point on the
current line.
@vindex kill-whole-line
If the variable @code{kill-whole-line} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-k} at
the very beginning of a line kills the entire line including the
following newline. This variable is normally @code{nil}.
@kindex C-S-backspace
@findex kill-whole-line
@kbd{C-S-backspace} (@code{kill-whole-line}) will kill a whole line
including its newline regardless of the position of point within the
line. Note that many character terminals will prevent you from typing
the key sequence @kbd{C-S-backspace}.
@node Other Kill Commands
@subsection Other Kill Commands
@findex kill-region
@kindex C-w
@table @kbd
@item C-w
Kill region (from point to the mark) (@code{kill-region}).
@item M-d
Kill word (@code{kill-word}). @xref{Words}.
@item M-@key{DEL}
Kill word backwards (@code{backward-kill-word}).
@item C-x @key{DEL}
Kill back to beginning of sentence (@code{backward-kill-sentence}).
@xref{Sentences}.
@item M-k
Kill to end of sentence (@code{kill-sentence}).
@item C-M-k
Kill the following balanced expression (@code{kill-sexp}). @xref{Expressions}.
@item M-z @var{char}
Kill through the next occurrence of @var{char} (@code{zap-to-char}).
@end table
The most general kill command is @kbd{C-w} (@code{kill-region}),
which kills everything between point and the mark. With this command,
you can kill any contiguous sequence of characters, if you first set
the region around them.
@kindex M-z
@findex zap-to-char
A convenient way of killing is combined with searching: @kbd{M-z}
(@code{zap-to-char}) reads a character and kills from point up to (and
including) the next occurrence of that character in the buffer. A
numeric argument acts as a repeat count. A negative argument means to
search backward and kill text before point.
Other syntactic units can be killed: words, with @kbd{M-@key{DEL}}
and @kbd{M-d} (@pxref{Words}); balanced expressions, with @kbd{C-M-k}
(@pxref{Expressions}); and sentences, with @kbd{C-x @key{DEL}} and
@kbd{M-k} (@pxref{Sentences}).@refill
@node Yanking, Accumulating Text, Killing, Top
@section Yanking
@cindex moving text
@cindex copying text
@cindex kill ring
@cindex yanking
@cindex pasting
@dfn{Yanking} means reinserting text previously killed. This is what
some systems call ``pasting.'' The usual way to move or copy text is to
kill it and then yank it elsewhere one or more times. This is very safe
because Emacs remembers many recent kills, not just the last one.
@table @kbd
@item C-y
Yank last killed text (@code{yank}).
@item M-y
Replace text just yanked with an earlier batch of killed text
(@code{yank-pop}).
@item M-w
Save region as last killed text without actually killing it
(@code{kill-ring-save}). Some systems call this ``copying.''
@item C-M-w
Append next kill to last batch of killed text (@code{append-next-kill}).
@end table
On graphical displays with window systems, if there is a current
selection in some other application, and you selected it more recently
than you killed any text in Emacs, @kbd{C-y} copies the selection
instead of text killed within Emacs.
@menu
* Kill Ring:: Where killed text is stored. Basic yanking.
* Appending Kills:: Several kills in a row all yank together.
* Earlier Kills:: Yanking something killed some time ago.
@end menu
@node Kill Ring
@subsection The Kill Ring
All killed text is recorded in the @dfn{kill ring}, a list of blocks of
text that have been killed. There is only one kill ring, shared by all
buffers, so you can kill text in one buffer and yank it in another buffer.
This is the usual way to move text from one file to another.
(@xref{Accumulating Text}, for some other ways.)
@kindex C-y
@findex yank
The command @kbd{C-y} (@code{yank}) reinserts the text of the most recent
kill. It leaves the cursor at the end of the text. It sets the mark at
the beginning of the text. @xref{Mark}.
@kbd{C-u C-y} leaves the cursor in front of the text, and sets the
mark after it. This happens only if the argument is specified with just
a @kbd{C-u}, precisely. Any other sort of argument, including @kbd{C-u}
and digits, specifies an earlier kill to yank (@pxref{Earlier Kills}).
@cindex yanking and text properties
@vindex yank-excluded-properties
The yank commands discard certain text properties from the text that
is yanked, those that might lead to annoying results. For instance,
they discard text properties that respond to the mouse or specify key
bindings. The variable @code{yank-excluded-properties} specifies the
properties to discard. Yanking of register contents and rectangles
also discard these properties.
@kindex M-w
@findex kill-ring-save
To copy a block of text, you can use @kbd{M-w}
(@code{kill-ring-save}), which copies the region into the kill ring
without removing it from the buffer. This is approximately equivalent
to @kbd{C-w} followed by @kbd{C-x u}, except that @kbd{M-w} does not
alter the undo history and does not temporarily change the screen.
@node Appending Kills
@subsection Appending Kills
@cindex appending kills in the ring
@cindex television
Normally, each kill command pushes a new entry onto the kill ring.
However, two or more kill commands in a row combine their text into a
single entry, so that a single @kbd{C-y} yanks all the text as a unit,
just as it was before it was killed.
Thus, if you want to yank text as a unit, you need not kill all of it
with one command; you can keep killing line after line, or word after
word, until you have killed it all, and you can still get it all back at
once.
Commands that kill forward from point add onto the end of the previous
killed text. Commands that kill backward from point add text onto the
beginning. This way, any sequence of mixed forward and backward kill
commands puts all the killed text into one entry without rearrangement.
Numeric arguments do not break the sequence of appending kills. For
example, suppose the buffer contains this text:
@example
This is a line @point{}of sample text.
@end example
@noindent
with point shown by @point{}. If you type @kbd{M-d M-@key{DEL} M-d
M-@key{DEL}}, killing alternately forward and backward, you end up with
@samp{a line of sample} as one entry in the kill ring, and @samp{This
is@ @ text.} in the buffer. (Note the double space between @samp{is}
and @samp{text}, which you can clean up with @kbd{M-@key{SPC}} or
@kbd{M-q}.)
Another way to kill the same text is to move back two words with
@kbd{M-b M-b}, then kill all four words forward with @kbd{C-u M-d}.
This produces exactly the same results in the buffer and in the kill
ring. @kbd{M-f M-f C-u M-@key{DEL}} kills the same text, all going
backward; once again, the result is the same. The text in the kill ring
entry always has the same order that it had in the buffer before you
killed it.
@kindex C-M-w
@findex append-next-kill
If a kill command is separated from the last kill command by other
commands (not just numeric arguments), it starts a new entry on the kill
ring. But you can force it to append by first typing the command
@kbd{C-M-w} (@code{append-next-kill}) right before it. The @kbd{C-M-w}
tells the following command, if it is a kill command, to append the text
it kills to the last killed text, instead of starting a new entry. With
@kbd{C-M-w}, you can kill several separated pieces of text and
accumulate them to be yanked back in one place.@refill
A kill command following @kbd{M-w} does not append to the text that
@kbd{M-w} copied into the kill ring.
@node Earlier Kills
@subsection Yanking Earlier Kills
@cindex yanking previous kills
@kindex M-y
@findex yank-pop
To recover killed text that is no longer the most recent kill, use the
@kbd{M-y} command (@code{yank-pop}). It takes the text previously
yanked and replaces it with the text from an earlier kill. So, to
recover the text of the next-to-the-last kill, first use @kbd{C-y} to
yank the last kill, and then use @kbd{M-y} to replace it with the
previous kill. @kbd{M-y} is allowed only after a @kbd{C-y} or another
@kbd{M-y}.
You can understand @kbd{M-y} in terms of a ``last yank'' pointer which
points at an entry in the kill ring. Each time you kill, the ``last
yank'' pointer moves to the newly made entry at the front of the ring.
@kbd{C-y} yanks the entry which the ``last yank'' pointer points to.
@kbd{M-y} moves the ``last yank'' pointer to a different entry, and the
text in the buffer changes to match. Enough @kbd{M-y} commands can move
the pointer to any entry in the ring, so you can get any entry into the
buffer. Eventually the pointer reaches the end of the ring; the next
@kbd{M-y} loops back around to the first entry again.
@kbd{M-y} moves the ``last yank'' pointer around the ring, but it does
not change the order of the entries in the ring, which always runs from
the most recent kill at the front to the oldest one still remembered.
@kbd{M-y} can take a numeric argument, which tells it how many entries
to advance the ``last yank'' pointer by. A negative argument moves the
pointer toward the front of the ring; from the front of the ring, it
moves ``around'' to the last entry and continues forward from there.
Once the text you are looking for is brought into the buffer, you can
stop doing @kbd{M-y} commands and it will stay there. It's just a copy
of the kill ring entry, so editing it in the buffer does not change
what's in the ring. As long as no new killing is done, the ``last
yank'' pointer remains at the same place in the kill ring, so repeating
@kbd{C-y} will yank another copy of the same previous kill.
If you know how many @kbd{M-y} commands it would take to find the
text you want, you can yank that text in one step using @kbd{C-y} with
a numeric argument. @kbd{C-y} with an argument restores the text from
the specified kill ring entry, counting back from the most recent as
1. Thus, @kbd{C-u 2 C-y} gets the next-to-the-last block of killed
text---it is equivalent to @kbd{C-y M-y}. @kbd{C-y} with a numeric
argument starts counting from the ``last yank'' pointer, and sets the
``last yank'' pointer to the entry that it yanks.
@vindex kill-ring-max
The length of the kill ring is controlled by the variable
@code{kill-ring-max}; no more than that many blocks of killed text are
saved.
@vindex kill-ring
The actual contents of the kill ring are stored in a variable named
@code{kill-ring}; you can view the entire contents of the kill ring with
the command @kbd{C-h v kill-ring}.
@node Accumulating Text, Rectangles, Yanking, Top
@section Accumulating Text
@findex append-to-buffer
@findex prepend-to-buffer
@findex copy-to-buffer
@findex append-to-file
@cindex accumulating scattered text
Usually we copy or move text by killing it and yanking it, but there
are other convenient methods for copying one block of text in many
places, or for copying many scattered blocks of text into one place. To
copy one block to many places, store it in a register
(@pxref{Registers}). Here we describe the commands to accumulate
scattered pieces of text into a buffer or into a file.
@table @kbd
@item M-x append-to-buffer
Append region to the contents of a specified buffer.
@item M-x prepend-to-buffer
Prepend region to the contents of a specified buffer.
@item M-x copy-to-buffer
Copy region into a specified buffer, deleting that buffer's old contents.
@item M-x insert-buffer
Insert the contents of a specified buffer into current buffer at point.
@item M-x append-to-file
Append region to the contents of a specified file, at the end.
@end table
To accumulate text into a buffer, use @kbd{M-x append-to-buffer}.
This reads a buffer name, then inserts a copy of the region into the
buffer specified. If you specify a nonexistent buffer,
@code{append-to-buffer} creates the buffer. The text is inserted
wherever point is in that buffer. If you have been using the buffer for
editing, the copied text goes into the middle of the text of the buffer,
starting from wherever point happens to be at that moment.
Point in that buffer is left at the end of the copied text, so
successive uses of @code{append-to-buffer} accumulate the text in the
specified buffer in the same order as they were copied. Strictly
speaking, @code{append-to-buffer} does not always append to the text
already in the buffer---it appends only if point in that buffer is at the end.
However, if @code{append-to-buffer} is the only command you use to alter
a buffer, then point is always at the end.
@kbd{M-x prepend-to-buffer} is just like @code{append-to-buffer}
except that point in the other buffer is left before the copied text, so
successive prependings add text in reverse order. @kbd{M-x
copy-to-buffer} is similar, except that any existing text in the other
buffer is deleted, so the buffer is left containing just the text newly
copied into it.
To retrieve the accumulated text from another buffer, use the
command @kbd{M-x insert-buffer}; this too takes @var{buffername} as an
argument. It inserts a copy of the whole text in buffer
@var{buffername} into the current buffer at point, and sets the mark
after the inserted text. Alternatively, you can select the other
buffer for editing, then copy text from it by killing.
@xref{Buffers}, for background information on buffers.
Instead of accumulating text within Emacs, in a buffer, you can append
text directly into a file with @kbd{M-x append-to-file}, which takes
@var{filename} as an argument. It adds the text of the region to the end
of the specified file. The file is changed immediately on disk.
You should use @code{append-to-file} only with files that are
@emph{not} being visited in Emacs. Using it on a file that you are
editing in Emacs would change the file behind Emacs's back, which
can lead to losing some of your editing.
@node Rectangles, CUA Bindings, Accumulating Text, Top
@section Rectangles
@cindex rectangle
@cindex columns (and rectangles)
@cindex killing rectangular areas of text
The rectangle commands operate on rectangular areas of the text: all
the characters between a certain pair of columns, in a certain range of
lines. Commands are provided to kill rectangles, yank killed rectangles,
clear them out, fill them with blanks or text, or delete them. Rectangle
commands are useful with text in multicolumn formats, and for changing
text into or out of such formats.
@cindex mark rectangle
When you must specify a rectangle for a command to work on, you do it
by putting the mark at one corner and point at the opposite corner. The
rectangle thus specified is called the @dfn{region-rectangle} because
you control it in much the same way as the region is controlled. But
remember that a given combination of point and mark values can be
interpreted either as a region or as a rectangle, depending on the
command that uses them.
If point and the mark are in the same column, the rectangle they
delimit is empty. If they are in the same line, the rectangle is one
line high. This asymmetry between lines and columns comes about
because point (and likewise the mark) is between two columns, but within
a line.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r k
Kill the text of the region-rectangle, saving its contents as the
``last killed rectangle'' (@code{kill-rectangle}).
@item C-x r d
Delete the text of the region-rectangle (@code{delete-rectangle}).
@item C-x r y
Yank the last killed rectangle with its upper left corner at point
(@code{yank-rectangle}).
@item C-x r o
Insert blank space to fill the space of the region-rectangle
(@code{open-rectangle}). This pushes the previous contents of the
region-rectangle rightward.
@item C-x r c
Clear the region-rectangle by replacing all of its contents with spaces
(@code{clear-rectangle}).
@item M-x delete-whitespace-rectangle
Delete whitespace in each of the lines on the specified rectangle,
starting from the left edge column of the rectangle.
@item C-x r t @var{string} @key{RET}
Replace rectangle contents with @var{string} on each line
(@code{string-rectangle}).
@item M-x string-insert-rectangle @key{RET} @var{string} @key{RET}
Insert @var{string} on each line of the rectangle.
@end table
The rectangle operations fall into two classes: commands for
deleting and inserting rectangles, and commands for blank rectangles.
@kindex C-x r k
@kindex C-x r d
@findex kill-rectangle
@findex delete-rectangle
There are two ways to get rid of the text in a rectangle: you can
discard the text (delete it) or save it as the ``last killed''
rectangle. The commands for these two ways are @kbd{C-x r d}
(@code{delete-rectangle}) and @kbd{C-x r k} (@code{kill-rectangle}). In
either case, the portion of each line that falls inside the rectangle's
boundaries is deleted, causing any following text on the line to
move left into the gap.
Note that ``killing'' a rectangle is not killing in the usual sense; the
rectangle is not stored in the kill ring, but in a special place that
can only record the most recent rectangle killed. This is because yanking
a rectangle is so different from yanking linear text that different yank
commands have to be used. It is hard to define yank-popping for rectangles,
so we do not try.
@kindex C-x r y
@findex yank-rectangle
To yank the last killed rectangle, type @kbd{C-x r y}
(@code{yank-rectangle}). Yanking a rectangle is the opposite of killing
one. Point specifies where to put the rectangle's upper left corner.
The rectangle's first line is inserted there, the rectangle's second
line is inserted at the same horizontal position, but one line
vertically down, and so on. The number of lines affected is determined
by the height of the saved rectangle.
You can convert single-column lists into double-column lists using
rectangle killing and yanking; kill the second half of the list as a
rectangle and then yank it beside the first line of the list.
@xref{Two-Column}, for another way to edit multi-column text.
You can also copy rectangles into and out of registers with @kbd{C-x r
r @var{r}} and @kbd{C-x r i @var{r}}. @xref{RegRect,,Rectangle
Registers}.
@kindex C-x r o
@findex open-rectangle
@kindex C-x r c
@findex clear-rectangle
There are two commands you can use for making blank rectangles:
@kbd{C-x r c} (@code{clear-rectangle}) which blanks out existing text,
and @kbd{C-x r o} (@code{open-rectangle}) which inserts a blank
rectangle. Clearing a rectangle is equivalent to deleting it and then
inserting a blank rectangle of the same size.
@findex delete-whitespace-rectangle
The command @kbd{M-x delete-whitespace-rectangle} deletes horizontal
whitespace starting from a particular column. This applies to each of
the lines in the rectangle, and the column is specified by the left
edge of the rectangle. The right edge of the rectangle does not make
any difference to this command.
@kindex C-x r t
@findex string-rectangle
The command @kbd{C-x r t} (@code{string-rectangle}) replaces the
contents of a region-rectangle with a string on each line. The
string's width need not be the same as the width of the rectangle. If
the string's width is less, the text after the rectangle shifts left;
if the string is wider than the rectangle, the text after the
rectangle shifts right.
@findex string-insert-rectangle
The command @kbd{M-x string-insert-rectangle} is similar to
@code{string-rectangle}, but inserts the string on each line,
shifting the original text to the right.
@node CUA Bindings, Registers, Rectangles, Top
@section CUA Bindings
@findex cua-mode
@vindex cua-mode
@cindex CUA key bindings
@vindex cua-enable-cua-keys
The command @kbd{M-x cua-mode} sets up key bindings that are
compatible with the Common User Access (CUA) system used in many other
applications. @kbd{C-x} means cut (kill), @kbd{C-c} copy, @kbd{C-v}
paste (yank), and @kbd{C-z} undo. Standard Emacs commands like
@kbd{C-x C-c} still work, because @kbd{C-x} and @kbd{C-c} only take
effect when the mark is active (and the region is highlighted).
However, if you don't want to override these bindings in Emacs at all,
set @code{cua-enable-cua-keys} to @code{nil}.
In CUA mode, using @kbd{Shift} together with the movement keys
activates and highlights the region over which they move. The
standard (unshifted) movement keys deactivate the mark, and typed text
replaces the active region as in Delete-Selection mode
(@pxref{Mouse Commands}).
To enter an Emacs command like @kbd{C-x C-f} while the mark is
active, use one of the following methods: either hold @kbd{Shift}
together with the prefix key, e.g. @kbd{S-C-x C-f}, or quickly type
the prefix key twice, e.g. @kbd{C-x C-x C-f}.
@cindex rectangle highlighting
CUA mode provides enhanced rectangle support with visible
rectangle highlighting. Use @kbd{C-RET} to start a rectangle,
extend it using the movement commands, and cut or copy it using
@kbd{C-x} or @kbd{C-c}. @kbd{RET} moves the cursor to the next
(clockwise) corner of the rectangle, so you can easily expand it in
any direction. Normal text you type is inserted to the left or right
of each line in the rectangle (on the same side as the cursor).
With CUA you can easily copy text and rectangles into and out of
registers by providing a one-digit numeric prefix to the kill, copy,
and yank commands, e.g. @kbd{C-1 C-c} copies the region into register
@code{1}, and @kbd{C-2 C-v} yanks the contents of register @code{2}.
@cindex global mark
CUA mode also has a global mark feature which allows easy moving and
copying of text between buffers. Use @kbd{C-S-SPC} to toggle the
global mark on and off. When the global mark is on, all text that you
kill or copy is automatically inserted at the global mark, and text
you type is inserted at the global mark rather than at the current
position.
For example, to copy words from various buffers into a word list in
a given buffer, set the global mark in the target buffer, then
navigate to each of the words you want in the list, mark it (e.g. with
@kbd{S-M-f}), copy it to the list with @kbd{C-c} or @kbd{M-w}, and
insert a newline after the word in the target list by pressing
@key{RET}.
@ifnottex
@lowersections
@end ifnottex
@ignore
arch-tag: d8da8f96-0928-449a-816e-ff2d3497866c
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Keyboard Macros, Files, Fixit, Top
@chapter Keyboard Macros
@cindex defining keyboard macros
@cindex keyboard macro
In this chapter we describe how to record a sequence of editing
commands so you can repeat it conveniently later.
A @dfn{keyboard macro} is a command defined by an Emacs user to stand for
another sequence of keys. For example, if you discover that you are
about to type @kbd{C-n M-d C-d} forty times, you can speed your work by
defining a keyboard macro to do @kbd{C-n M-d C-d}, and then executing
it 39 more times.
You define a keyboard macro by executing and recording the commands
which are its definition. Put differently, as you define a keyboard
macro, the definition is being executed for the first time. This way,
you can see the effects of your commands, so that you don't have to
figure them out in your head. When you close the definition, the
keyboard macro is defined and also has been, in effect, executed once.
You can then do the whole thing over again by invoking the macro.
Keyboard macros differ from ordinary Emacs commands in that they are
written in the Emacs command language rather than in Lisp. This makes it
easier for the novice to write them, and makes them more convenient as
temporary hacks. However, the Emacs command language is not powerful
enough as a programming language to be useful for writing anything
intelligent or general. For such things, Lisp must be used.
@menu
* Basic Keyboard Macro:: Defining and running keyboard macros.
* Keyboard Macro Ring:: Where previous keyboard macros are saved.
* Keyboard Macro Counter:: Inserting incrementing numbers in macros.
* Keyboard Macro Query:: Making keyboard macros do different things each time.
* Save Keyboard Macro:: Giving keyboard macros names; saving them in files.
* Edit Keyboard Macro:: Editing keyboard macros.
* Keyboard Macro Step-Edit:: Interactively executing and editing a keyboard
macro.
@end menu
@node Basic Keyboard Macro
@section Basic Use
@table @kbd
@item @key{F3}
@itemx C-x (
Start defining a keyboard macro (@code{kmacro-start-macro}).
@item @key{F4}
If a keyboard macro is being defined, end the definition; otherwise,
execute the most recent keyboard macro
(@code{kmacro-end-or-call-macro}).
@item C-x )
End the definition of a keyboard macro (@code{kmacro-end-macro}).
@item C-x e
Execute the most recent keyboard macro (@code{kmacro-end-and-call-macro}).
First end the definition of the keyboard macro, if currently defining it.
To immediately execute the keyboard macro again, just repeat the @kbd{e}.
@item C-u C-x (
Re-execute last keyboard macro, then add more keys to its definition.
@item C-u C-u C-x (
Add more keys to the last keyboard macro without re-executing it.
@item C-x C-k r
Run the last keyboard macro on each line that begins in the region
(@code{apply-macro-to-region-lines}).
@end table
@kindex F3
@kindex F4
@kindex C-x (
@kindex C-x )
@kindex C-x e
@findex kmacro-start-macro
@findex kmacro-end-macro
@findex kmacro-end-and-call-macro
To start defining a keyboard macro, type the @kbd{F3} or @kbd{C-x (} command
(@code{kmacro-start-macro}). From then on, your keys continue to be
executed, but also become part of the definition of the macro. @samp{Def}
appears in the mode line to remind you of what is going on. When you are
finished, the @kbd{F4} or @kbd{C-x )} command (@code{kmacro-end-macro}) terminates the
definition (without becoming part of it!). For example,
@example
C-x ( M-f foo C-x )
@end example
@noindent
defines a macro to move forward a word and then insert @samp{foo}.
The macro thus defined can be invoked again with the @kbd{C-x e}
command (@code{kmacro-end-and-call-macro}), which may be given a
repeat count as a numeric argument to execute the macro many times.
If you enter @kbd{C-x e} while defining a macro, the macro is
terminated and executed immediately.
After executing the macro with @kbd{C-x e}, you can use @kbd{e}
repeatedly to immediately repeat the macro one or more times. For example,
@example
C-x ( xyz C-x e e e
@end example
@noindent
inserts @samp{xyzxyzxyzxyz} in the current buffer.
@kbd{C-x )} can also be given a repeat count as an argument, in
which case it repeats the macro that many times right after defining
it, but defining the macro counts as the first repetition (since it is
executed as you define it). Therefore, giving @kbd{C-x )} an argument
of 4 executes the macro immediately 3 additional times. An argument
of zero to @kbd{C-x e} or @kbd{C-x )} means repeat the macro
indefinitely (until it gets an error or you type @kbd{C-g} or, on
MS-DOS, @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}}).
The key @key{F4} is like a combination of @kbd{C-x )} and @kbd{C-x
e}. If you're defining a macro, @key{F4} ends the definition.
Otherwise it executes the last macro. For example,
@example
F3 xyz F4 F4 F4
@end example
@noindent
inserts @samp{xyzxyzxyz} in the current buffer.
If you wish to repeat an operation at regularly spaced places in the
text, define a macro and include as part of the macro the commands to move
to the next place you want to use it. For example, if you want to change
each line, you should position point at the start of a line, and define a
macro to change that line and leave point at the start of the next line.
Then repeating the macro will operate on successive lines.
When a command reads an argument with the minibuffer, your
minibuffer input becomes part of the macro along with the command. So
when you replay the macro, the command gets the same argument as
when you entered the macro. For example,
@example
C-x ( C-a C-@key{SPC} C-n M-w C-x b f o o @key{RET} C-y C-x b @key{RET} C-x )
@end example
@noindent
defines a macro that copies the current line into the buffer
@samp{foo}, then returns to the original buffer.
You can use function keys in a keyboard macro, just like keyboard
keys. You can even use mouse events, but be careful about that: when
the macro replays the mouse event, it uses the original mouse position
of that event, the position that the mouse had while you were defining
the macro. The effect of this may be hard to predict. (Using the
current mouse position would be even less predictable.)
One thing that sometimes works badly in a keyboard macro is the
command @kbd{C-M-c} (@code{exit-recursive-edit}). When this command
exits a recursive edit that started within the macro, it works as
you'd expect. But if it exits a recursive edit that started before
you invoked the keyboard macro, it also necessarily exits the keyboard
macro as part of the process.
After you have terminated the definition of a keyboard macro, you can add
to the end of its definition by typing @kbd{C-u F3} or @kbd{C-u C-x (}.
This is equivalent
to plain @kbd{C-x (} followed by retyping the whole definition so far. As
a consequence it re-executes the macro as previously defined.
You can also add to the end of the definition of the last keyboard
macro without re-executing it by typing @kbd{C-u C-u C-x (}.
The variable @code{kmacro-execute-before-append} specifies whether
a single @kbd{C-u} prefix causes the existing macro to be re-executed
before appending to it.
@findex apply-macro-to-region-lines
@kindex C-x C-k r
The command @kbd{C-x C-k r} (@code{apply-macro-to-region-lines})
repeats the last defined keyboard macro on each line that begins in
the region. It does this line by line, by moving point to the
beginning of the line and then executing the macro.
@node Keyboard Macro Ring
@section The Keyboard Macro Ring
All defined keyboard macros are recorded in the ``keyboard macro ring,''
a list of sequences of keys. There is only one keyboard macro ring,
shared by all buffers.
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-k C-k
Execute the keyboard macro at the head of the ring (@code{kmacro-end-or-call-macro-repeat}).
@item C-x C-k C-n
Rotate the keyboard macro ring to the next macro (defined earlier)
(@code{kmacro-cycle-ring-next}).
@item C-x C-k C-p
Rotate the keyboard macro ring to the previous macro (defined later)
(@code{kmacro-cycle-ring-previous}).
@end table
All commands which operate on the keyboard macro ring use the
same @kbd{C-x C-k} prefix. Most of these commands can be executed and
repeated immediately after each other without repeating the @kbd{C-x
C-k} prefix. For example,
@example
C-x C-k C-p C-p C-k C-k C-k C-n C-n C-k C-p C-k C-d
@end example
@noindent
will rotate the keyboard macro ring to the ``second previous'' macro,
execute the resulting head macro three times, rotate back to the
original head macro, execute that once, rotate to the ``previous''
macro, execute that, and finally delete it from the macro ring.
@findex kmacro-end-or-call-macro-repeat
@kindex C-x C-k C-k
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-k} (@code{kmacro-end-or-call-macro-repeat})
executes the keyboard macro at the head of the macro ring. You can
repeat the macro immediately by typing another @kbd{C-k}, or you can
rotate the macro ring immediately by typing @kbd{C-n} or @kbd{C-p}.
When a keyboard macro is being defined, @kbd{C-x C-k C-k} behaves like
@kbd{C-x )} except that, immediately afterward, you can use most key
bindings of this section without the @kbd{C-x C-k} prefix. For
instance, another @kbd{C-k} will re-execute the macro.
@findex kmacro-cycle-ring-next
@kindex C-x C-k C-n
@findex kmacro-cycle-ring-previous
@kindex C-x C-k C-p
The commands @kbd{C-x C-k C-n} (@code{kmacro-cycle-ring-next}) and
@kbd{C-x C-k C-p} (@code{kmacro-cycle-ring-previous}) rotate the
macro ring, bringing the next or previous keyboard macro to the head
of the macro ring. The definition of the new head macro is displayed
in the echo area. You can continue to rotate the macro ring
immediately by repeating just @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} until the
desired macro is at the head of the ring. To execute the new macro
ring head immediately, just type @kbd{C-k}.
Note that Emacs treats the head of the macro ring as the ``last
defined keyboard macro.'' For instance, @kbd{C-x e} will execute that
macro, and @kbd{C-x C-k n} will give it a name.
@ignore @c This interface is too kludgy
@c and the functionality duplicates the functionality above -- rms.
@findex kmacro-view-macro-repeat
@kindex C-x C-k C-v
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-v} (@code{kmacro-view-macro-repeat})
displays the last keyboard macro, or when repeated (with @kbd{C-v}),
it displays the previous macro on the macro ring, just like @kbd{C-x
C-k C-p}, but without actually rotating the macro ring. If you enter
@kbd{C-k} immediately after displaying a macro from the ring, that
macro is executed, but still without altering the macro ring.
So while e.g. @kbd{C-x C-k C-p C-p C-p C-k C-k} makes the 3rd previous
macro the current macro and executes it twice, @kbd{C-x C-k C-v C-v
C-v C-k C-k} will display and execute the 3rd previous macro once and
then the current macro once.
@end ignore
@ignore @c This is just too much feeping creaturism.
@c If you are reusing certain macros enough to want these,
@c you should give then names. -- rms
@findex kmacro-delete-ring-head
@kindex C-x C-k C-d
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-d} (@code{kmacro-delete-ring-head})
removes and deletes the macro currently at the head of the macro
ring. You can use this to delete a macro that didn't work as
expected, or which you don't need anymore.
@findex kmacro-swap-ring
@kindex C-x C-k C-t
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-t} (@code{kmacro-swap-ring})
interchanges the head of the macro ring with the previous element on
the macro ring.
@findex kmacro-call-ring-2nd-repeat
@kindex C-x C-k C-l
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-l} (@code{kmacro-call-ring-2nd-repeat})
executes the previous (rather than the head) element on the macro ring.
@end ignore
@vindex kmacro-ring-max
The maximum number of macros stored in the keyboard macro ring is
determined by the customizable variable @code{kmacro-ring-max}.
@node Keyboard Macro Counter
@section The Keyboard Macro Counter
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-k C-i
Insert the keyboard macro counter value in the buffer
(@code{kmacro-insert-counter}).
@item C-x C-k C-c
Set the keyboard macro counter (@code{kmacro-set-counter}).
@item C-x C-k C-a
Add the prefix arg to the keyboard macro counter (@code{kmacro-add-counter}).
@item C-x C-k C-f
Specify the format for inserting the keyboard macro counter
(@code{kmacro-set-format}).
@end table
Each keyboard macro has an associated counter. Normally, the
macro counter is initialized to 0 when you start defining the macro,
and incremented by 1 after each insertion of the counter value;
that is, if you insert the macro counter twice while defining the
macro, the counter will increase by 2 on each repetition of the macro.
@findex kmacro-insert-counter
@kindex C-x C-k C-i
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-i} (@code{kmacro-insert-counter}) inserts
the current value of the current keyboard macro's counter, and
increments the counter by 1. You can use a numeric prefix argument to
specify a different increment. If you just specify a @kbd{C-u}
prefix, then the increment is zero, so it repeats the last inserted
counter value. For example, if you enter the following sequence while
defining a macro
@example
C-x C-k C-i C-x C-k C-i C-u C-x C-k C-i C-x C-k C-i
@end example
@noindent
it inserts @samp{0112} in the buffer. The next two iterations
of the macro will insert @samp{3445} and @samp{6778}.
This command usually only makes sense while defining a keyboard
macro. But its behavior when no keyboard macro is being defined or
executed is predictable: it inserts and increments the counter of the
macro at the head of the keyboard macro ring.
@findex kmacro-set-counter
@kindex C-x C-k C-c
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-c} (@code{kmacro-set-counter}) sets the
current macro counter to the value of the numeric argument. If you use
it inside the macro, it operates on each repetition of the macro. If
you specify just @kbd{C-u} as the prefix, while executing the macro,
that resets the counter to the value it had at the beginning of the
current repetition of the macro (undoing any increments so far in this
repetition).
@findex kmacro-add-counter
@kindex C-x C-k C-a
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-a} (@code{kmacro-add-counter}) adds the
prefix argument to the current macro counter. With just @kbd{C-u} as
argument, it resets the counter to the last value inserted by any
keyboard macro. (Normally, when you use this, the last insertion
will be in the same macro and it will be the same counter.)
@findex kmacro-set-format
@kindex C-x C-k C-f
The command @kbd{C-x C-k C-f} (@code{kmacro-set-format}) prompts for
the format to use when inserting the macro counter. The default
format is @samp{%d}, which means to insert the number in decimal
without any padding. You can exit with empty minibuffer to reset the
format to this default. You can specify any format string that the
@code{format} function accepts and that makes sense with a single
integer extra argument (@pxref{Formatting Strings,,, elisp, The Emacs
Lisp Reference Manual}). Do not put the format string inside double
quotes when you insert it in the minibuffer.
If you use this command while no keyboard macro is being defined or
executed, the new format affects all subsequent macro definitions.
Existing macros continue to use the format in effect when they were
defined. If you set the format while defining a keyboard macro, this
affects the macro being defined from that point on, but it does not
affect subsequent macros. Execution of the macro will, at each step,
use the format in effect at that step during its definition. Changes
to the macro format during execution of a macro, like the
corresponding changes during its definition, have no effect on
subsequent macros.
The format set by @kbd{C-x C-k C-f} does not affect insertion of
numbers stored in registers.
@node Keyboard Macro Query
@section Executing Macros with Variations
@table @kbd
@item C-x q
When this point is reached during macro execution, ask for confirmation
(@code{kbd-macro-query}).
@end table
@kindex C-x q
@findex kbd-macro-query
Using @kbd{C-x q} (@code{kbd-macro-query}), you can get an effect
similar to that of @code{query-replace}, where the macro asks you each
time around whether to make a change. While defining the macro,
type @kbd{C-x q} at the point where you want the query to occur. During
macro definition, the @kbd{C-x q} does nothing, but when you run the
macro later, @kbd{C-x q} asks you interactively whether to continue.
The valid responses when @kbd{C-x q} asks are @key{SPC} (or @kbd{y}),
@key{DEL} (or @kbd{n}), @key{RET} (or @kbd{q}), @kbd{C-l} and @kbd{C-r}.
The answers are the same as in @code{query-replace}, though not all of
the @code{query-replace} options are meaningful.
These responses include @key{SPC} to continue, and @key{DEL} to skip
the remainder of this repetition of the macro and start right away with
the next repetition. @key{RET} means to skip the remainder of this
repetition and cancel further repetitions. @kbd{C-l} redraws the screen
and asks you again for a character to say what to do.
@kbd{C-r} enters a recursive editing level, in which you can perform
editing which is not part of the macro. When you exit the recursive
edit using @kbd{C-M-c}, you are asked again how to continue with the
keyboard macro. If you type a @key{SPC} at this time, the rest of the
macro definition is executed. It is up to you to leave point and the
text in a state such that the rest of the macro will do what you
want.@refill
@kbd{C-u C-x q}, which is @kbd{C-x q} with a numeric argument,
performs a completely different function. It enters a recursive edit
reading input from the keyboard, both when you type it during the
definition of the macro, and when it is executed from the macro. During
definition, the editing you do inside the recursive edit does not become
part of the macro. During macro execution, the recursive edit gives you
a chance to do some particularized editing on each repetition.
@xref{Recursive Edit}.
Another way to vary the behavior of a keyboard macro is to use a
register as a counter, incrementing it on each repetition of the macro.
@xref{RegNumbers}.
@node Save Keyboard Macro
@section Naming and Saving Keyboard Macros
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-k n
Give a command name (for the duration of the Emacs session) to the most
recently defined keyboard macro (@code{kmacro-name-last-macro}).
@item C-x C-k b
Bind the most recently defined keyboard macro to a key sequence (for
the duration of the session) (@code{kmacro-bind-to-key}).
@item M-x insert-kbd-macro
Insert in the buffer a keyboard macro's definition, as Lisp code.
@end table
@cindex saving keyboard macros
@findex kmacro-name-last-macro
@kindex C-x C-k n
If you wish to save a keyboard macro for later use, you can give it
a name using @kbd{C-x C-k n} (@code{kmacro-name-last-macro}).
This reads a name as an argument using the minibuffer and defines that
name to execute the last keyboard macro, in its current form. (If you
later add to the definition of this macro, that does not alter the
name's definition as a macro.) The macro name is a Lisp symbol, and
defining it in this way makes it a valid command name for calling with
@kbd{M-x} or for binding a key to with @code{global-set-key}
(@pxref{Keymaps}). If you specify a name that has a prior definition
other than a keyboard macro, an error message is shown and nothing is
changed.
@cindex binding keyboard macros
@findex kmacro-bind-to-key
@kindex C-x C-k b
You can also bind the last keyboard macro (in its current form) to a
key, using @kbd{C-x C-k b} (@code{kmacro-bind-to-key}) followed by the
key sequence you want to bind. You can bind to any key sequence in
the global keymap, but since most key sequences already have other
bindings, you should select the key sequence carefully. If you try to
bind to a key sequence with an existing binding (in any keymap), this
command asks you for confirmation before replacing the existing binding.
To avoid problems caused by overriding existing bindings, the key
sequences @kbd{C-x C-k 0} through @kbd{C-x C-k 9} and @kbd{C-x C-k A}
through @kbd{C-x C-k Z} are reserved for your own keyboard macro
bindings. In fact, to bind to one of these key sequences, you only
need to type the digit or letter rather than the whole key sequences.
For example,
@example
C-x C-k b 4
@end example
@noindent
will bind the last keyboard macro to the key sequence @kbd{C-x C-k 4}.
@findex insert-kbd-macro
Once a macro has a command name, you can save its definition in a file.
Then it can be used in another editing session. First, visit the file
you want to save the definition in. Then use this command:
@example
M-x insert-kbd-macro @key{RET} @var{macroname} @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
This inserts some Lisp code that, when executed later, will define the
same macro with the same definition it has now. (You need not
understand Lisp code to do this, because @code{insert-kbd-macro} writes
the Lisp code for you.) Then save the file. You can load the file
later with @code{load-file} (@pxref{Lisp Libraries}). If the file you
save in is your init file @file{~/.emacs} (@pxref{Init File}) then the
macro will be defined each time you run Emacs.
If you give @code{insert-kbd-macro} a numeric argument, it makes
additional Lisp code to record the keys (if any) that you have bound
to @var{macroname}, so that the macro will be reassigned the same keys
when you load the file.
@node Edit Keyboard Macro
@section Editing a Keyboard Macro
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-k C-e
Edit the last defined keyboard macro (@code{kmacro-edit-macro}).
@item C-x C-k e @var{name} @key{RET}
Edit a previously defined keyboard macro @var{name} (@code{edit-kbd-macro}).
@item C-x C-k l
Edit the last 100 keystrokes as a keyboard macro
(@code{kmacro-edit-lossage}).
@end table
@findex kmacro-edit-macro
@kindex C-x C-k C-e
@kindex C-x C-k RET
You can edit the last keyboard macro by typing @kbd{C-x C-k C-e} or
@kbd{C-x C-k RET} (@code{kmacro-edit-macro}). This formats the macro
definition in a buffer and enters a specialized major mode for editing
it. Type @kbd{C-h m} once in that buffer to display details of how to
edit the macro. When you are finished editing, type @kbd{C-c C-c}.
@findex edit-kbd-macro
@kindex C-x C-k e
You can edit a named keyboard macro or a macro bound to a key by typing
@kbd{C-x C-k e} (@code{edit-kbd-macro}). Follow that with the
keyboard input that you would use to invoke the macro---@kbd{C-x e} or
@kbd{M-x @var{name}} or some other key sequence.
@findex kmacro-edit-lossage
@kindex C-x C-k l
You can edit the last 100 keystrokes as a macro by typing
@kbd{C-x C-k l} (@code{kmacro-edit-lossage}).
@node Keyboard Macro Step-Edit
@section Stepwise Editing a Keyboard Macro
@findex kmacro-step-edit-macro
@kindex C-x C-k SPC
You can interactively replay and edit the last keyboard
macro, one command at a time, by typing @kbd{C-x C-k SPC}
(@code{kmacro-step-edit-macro}). Unless you quit the macro using
@kbd{q} or @kbd{C-g}, the edited macro replaces the last macro on the
macro ring.
This macro editing feature shows the last macro in the minibuffer
together with the first (or next) command to be executed, and prompts
you for an action. You can enter @kbd{?} to get a summary of your
options. These actions are available:
@itemize @bullet{}
@item
@kbd{SPC} and @kbd{y} execute the current command, and advance to the
next command in the keyboard macro.
@item
@kbd{n}, @kbd{d}, and @kbd{DEL} skip and delete the current command.
@item
@kbd{f} skips the current command in this execution of the keyboard
macro, but doesn't delete it from the macro.
@item
@kbd{@key{TAB}} executes the current command, as well as all similar
commands immediately following the current command; for example, @key{TAB}
may be used to insert a sequence of characters (corresponding to a
sequence of @code{self-insert-command} commands).
@item
@kbd{c} continues execution (without further editing) until the end of
the keyboard macro. If execution terminates normally, the edited
macro replaces the original keyboard macro.
@item
@kbd{C-k} skips and deletes the rest of the keyboard macro,
terminates step-editing, and replaces the original keyboard macro
with the edited macro.
@item
@kbd{q} and @kbd{C-g} cancels the step-editing of the keyboard macro;
discarding any changes made to the keyboard macro.
@item
@kbd{i KEY... C-j} reads and executes a series of key sequences (not
including the final @kbd{C-j}), and inserts them before the current
command in the keyboard macro, without advancing over the current
command.
@item
@kbd{I KEY...} reads one key sequence, executes it, and inserts it
before the current command in the keyboard macro, without advancing
over the current command.
@item
@kbd{r KEY... C-j} reads and executes a series of key sequences (not
including the final @kbd{C-j}), and replaces the current command in
the keyboard macro with them, advancing over the inserted key
sequences.
@item
@kbd{R KEY...} reads one key sequence, executes it, and replaces the
current command in the keyboard macro with that key sequence,
advancing over the inserted key sequence.
@item
@kbd{a KEY... C-j} executes the current command, then reads and
executes a series of key sequences (not including the final
@kbd{C-j}), and inserts them after the current command in the keyboard
macro; it then advances over the current command and the inserted key
sequences.
@item
@kbd{A KEY... C-j} executes the rest of the commands in the keyboard
macro, then reads and executes a series of key sequences (not
including the final @kbd{C-j}), and appends them at the end of the
keyboard macro; it then terminates the step-editing and replaces the
original keyboard macro with the edited macro.
@end itemize
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node M-x, Help, Minibuffer, Top
@chapter Running Commands by Name
Every Emacs command has a name that you can use to run it. For
convenience, many commands also have key bindings. You can run those
commands by typing the keys, or run them by name. Most Emacs commands
have no key bindings, so the only way to run them is by name.
(@xref{Key Bindings}, for how to set up key bindings.)
By convention, a command name consists of one or more words,
separated by hyphens; for example, @code{auto-fill-mode} or
@code{manual-entry}. Command names mostly use complete English words
to make them easier to remember.
@kindex M-x
To run a command by name, start with @kbd{M-x}, type the command
name, then terminate it with @key{RET}. @kbd{M-x} uses the minibuffer
to read the command name. The string @samp{M-x} appears at the
beginning of the minibuffer as a @dfn{prompt} to remind you to enter a
command name to be run. @key{RET} exits the minibuffer and runs the
command. @xref{Minibuffer}, for more information on the minibuffer.
You can use completion to enter the command name. For example,
to invoke the command @code{forward-char}, you can type
@example
M-x forward-char @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
or
@example
M-x forw @key{TAB} c @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
Note that @code{forward-char} is the same command that you invoke with
the key @kbd{C-f}. The existence of a key binding does not stop you
from running the command by name.
To cancel the @kbd{M-x} and not run a command, type @kbd{C-g} instead
of entering the command name. This takes you back to command level.
To pass a numeric argument to the command you are invoking with
@kbd{M-x}, specify the numeric argument before @kbd{M-x}. The
argument value appears in the prompt while the command name is being
read, and finally @kbd{M-x} passes the argument to that command.
@vindex suggest-key-bindings
When the command you run with @kbd{M-x} has a key binding, Emacs
mentions this in the echo area after running the command. For
example, if you type @kbd{M-x forward-word}, the message says that you
can run the same command by typing @kbd{M-f}. You can turn off these
messages by setting the variable @code{suggest-key-bindings} to
@code{nil}.
In this manual, when we speak of running a command by name, we often
omit the @key{RET} that terminates the name. Thus we might say
@kbd{M-x auto-fill-mode} rather than @kbd{M-x auto-fill-mode
@key{RET}}. We mention the @key{RET} only for emphasis, such as when
the command is followed by arguments.
@findex execute-extended-command
@kbd{M-x} works by running the command
@code{execute-extended-command}, which is responsible for reading the
name of another command and invoking it.
@ignore
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,
@c 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, Antinews, Top
@appendix Emacs and Mac OS
@cindex Mac OS
@cindex Macintosh
This section briefly describes the peculiarities of using Emacs
under Mac OS with native window system support. For Mac OS X, Emacs
can be built either without window system support, with X11, or with
Carbon API. This section only applies to the Carbon build. For Mac
OS Classic, Emacs can be built with or without Carbon API, and this
section applies to either of them because they run on the native
window system.
Emacs built on Mac OS X supports most of its major features except
display support of PostScript images. The following features of Emacs
are not supported on Mac OS Classic: unexec (@code{dump-emacs}),
asynchronous subprocesses (@code{start-process}), and networking
(@code{open-network-stream}). As a result, packages such as Gnus,
GUD, and Comint do not work. Synchronous subprocesses
(@code{call-process}) are supported on non-Carbon build, but
specially-crafted external programs are needed. Since external
programs to handle commands such as @code{print-buffer} and
@code{diff} are not available on Mac OS Classic, they are not
supported. Non-Carbon build on Mac OS Classic does not support some
features such as file dialogs, drag-and-drop, and Unicode menus.
@menu
* Input: Mac Input. Keyboard and mouse input on Mac.
* Intl: Mac International. International character sets on Mac.
* Env: Mac Environment Variables. Setting environment variables for Emacs.
* Directories: Mac Directories. Volumes and directories on Mac.
* Font: Mac Font Specs. Specifying fonts on Mac.
* Functions: Mac Functions. Mac-specific Lisp functions.
@end menu
@node Mac Input
@section Keyboard and Mouse Input on Mac
@cindex Meta (Mac OS)
@cindex keyboard coding (Mac OS)
@vindex mac-control-modifier
@vindex mac-command-modifier
@vindex mac-option-modifier
@vindex mac-function-modifier
On Mac, Emacs can use @key{control}, @key{command}, @key{option}, and
laptop @key{function} keys as any of Emacs modifier keys except
@key{SHIFT} (i.e., @key{ALT}, @key{CTRL}, @key{HYPER}, @key{META}, and
@key{SUPER}). The assignment is controlled by the variables
@code{mac-control-modifier}, @code{mac-command-modifier},
@code{mac-option-modifier}, and @code{mac-function-modifier}. The value
for each of these variables can be one of the following symbols:
@code{alt}, @code{control}, @code{hyper}, @code{meta}, @code{super}, and
@code{nil} (no particular assignment). By default, the @key{control}
key works as @key{CTRL}, and the @key{command} key as @key{META}.
For the @key{option} key, if @code{mac-option-modifier} is set to
@code{nil}, which is the default, the key works as the normal
@key{option} key, i.e., dead-key processing will work. This is useful
for entering non-@acronym{ASCII} Latin characters directly from the
Mac keyboard, for example.
Emacs recognizes the setting in the Keyboard control panel (Mac OS
Classic) or the International system preference pane (Mac OS X) and
supports international and alternative keyboard layouts (e.g., Dvorak).
Selecting one of the layouts from the keyboard layout pull-down menu
will affect how the keys typed on the keyboard are interpreted.
@vindex mac-pass-command-to-system
@vindex mac-pass-control-to-system
Mac OS intercepts and handles certain key combinations (e.g.,
@key{command}-@key{SPC} for switching input languages). These will not
be passed to Emacs. One can disable this interception by setting
@code{mac-pass-command-to-system} or @code{mac-pass-control-to-system}
to @code{nil}.
@vindex mac-emulate-three-button-mouse
Especially for one-button mice, the multiple button feature can be
emulated by setting @code{mac-emulate-three-button-mouse} to @code{t}
or @code{reverse}. If set to @code{t} (@code{reverse}, respectively),
pressing the mouse button with the @key{option} key is recognized as
the second (third) button, and that with the @key{command} key is
recognized as the third (second) button.
@vindex mac-wheel-button-is-mouse-2
For multi-button mice, the wheel button and the secondary button are
recognized as the second and the third button, respectively. If
@code{mac-wheel-button-is-mouse-2} is set to @code{nil}, their roles
are exchanged.
@node Mac International
@section International Character Set Support on Mac
@cindex Mac Roman coding system
@cindex clipboard support (Mac OS)
Mac uses non-standard encodings for the upper 128 single-byte
characters. They also deviate from the ISO 2022 standard by using
character codes in the range 128-159. The coding systems
@code{mac-roman}, @code{mac-centraleurroman}, and @code{mac-cyrillic}
are used to represent these Mac encodings.
You can use input methods provided either by LEIM (@pxref{Input
Methods}) or Mac OS to enter international characters. To use the
former, see the International Character Set Support section of the
manual (@pxref{International}).
Emacs on Mac OS automatically changes the value of
@code{keyboard-coding-system} according to the current keyboard
layout. So users don't need to set it manually, and even if set, it
will be changed when the keyboard layout change is detected next time.
The Mac clipboard and the Emacs kill ring (@pxref{Killing}) are
synchronized by default: you can yank a piece of text and paste it
into another Mac application, or cut or copy one in another Mac
application and yank it into a Emacs buffer. This feature can be
disabled by setting @code{x-select-enable-clipboard} to @code{nil}.
One can still do copy and paste with another application from the Edit
menu.
On Mac, the role of the coding system for selection that is set by
@code{set-selection-coding-system} (@pxref{Communication Coding}) is
two-fold. First, it is used as a preferred coding system for the
traditional text flavor that does not specify any particular encodings
and is mainly used by applications on Mac OS Classic. Second, it
specifies the intermediate encoding for the UTF-16 text flavor that is
mainly used by applications on Mac OS X.
When pasting UTF-16 text data from the clipboard, it is first
converted to the encoding specified by the selection coding system
using the converter in the Mac OS system, and then decoded into the
Emacs internal encoding using the converter in Emacs. If the first
conversion failed, then the UTF-16 data is directly converted to Emacs
internal encoding using the converter in Emacs. Copying UTF-16 text
to the clipboard goes through the inverse path. The reason for this
two-pass decoding is to avoid subtle differences in Unicode mappings
between the Mac OS system and Emacs such as various kinds of hyphens,
and to minimize users' customization. For example, users that mainly
use Latin characters would prefer Greek characters to be decoded into
the @code{mule-unicode-0100-24ff} charset, but Japanese users would
prefer them to be decoded into the @code{japanese-jisx0208} charset.
Since the coding system for selection is automatically set according
to the system locale setting, users usually don't have to set it
manually.
The default language environment (@pxref{Language Environments}) is
set according to the locale setting at the startup time. On Mac OS,
the locale setting is consulted in the following order:
@enumerate
@item
Environment variables @env{LC_ALL}, @env{LC_CTYPE} and @env{LANG} as
in other systems.
@item
Preference @code{AppleLocale} that is set by default on Mac OS X 10.3
and later.
@item
Preference @code{AppleLanguages} that is set by default on Mac OS X
10.1 and later.
@item
Variable @code{mac-system-locale} that is derived from the system
language and region codes. This variable is available on all
supported Mac OS versions including Mac OS Classic.
@end enumerate
The default values of almost all variables about coding systems are
also set according to the language environment. So usually you don't
have to customize these variables manually.
@node Mac Environment Variables
@section Environment Variables and Command Line Arguments.
@cindex environment variables (Mac OS)
On Mac OS X, when Emacs is run in a terminal, it inherits the values
of environment variables from the shell from which it is invoked.
However, when it is run from the Finder as a GUI application, it only
inherits environment variable values defined in the file
@file{~/.MacOSX/environment.plist} that affects all the applications
invoked from the Finder or the @command{open} command.
Command line arguments are specified like
@example
/Applications/Emacs.app/Contents/MacOS/Emacs -g 80x25 &
@end example
@noindent
if Emacs is installed at @file{/Applications/Emacs.app}. If Emacs is
invoked like this, then it also inherits the values of environment
variables from the shell from which it is invoked.
On Mac OS Classic, environment variables and command line arguments
for Emacs can be set by modifying the @samp{STR#} resources 128 and
129, respectively. A common environment variable that one may want to
set is @samp{HOME}.
The way to set an environment variable is by adding a string of the
form
@example
ENV_VAR=VALUE
@end example
@noindent
to resource @samp{STR#} number 128 using @code{ResEdit}. To set up the
program to use unibyte characters exclusively, for example, add the
string
@example
EMACS_UNIBYTE=1
@end example
@cindex Mac Preferences
Although Emacs on Mac does not support X resources (@pxref{X
Resources}) directly, one can use the Preferences system in place of X
resources. For example, adding the line
@example
Emacs.cursorType: bar
@end example
@noindent
to @file{~/.Xresources} in X11 corresponds to the execution of
@example
defaults write org.gnu.Emacs Emacs.cursorType bar
@end example
@noindent
on Mac OS X. One can use boolean or numeric values as well as string
values as follows:
@example
defaults write org.gnu.Emacs Emacs.toolBar -bool false
defaults write org.gnu.Emacs Emacs.lineSpacing -int 3
@end example
@noindent
Try @kbd{M-x man RET defaults RET} for the usage of the
@command{defaults} command. Alternatively, if you have Developer
Tools installed on Mac OS X, you can use Property List Editor to edit
the file @file{~/Library/Preferences/org.gnu.Emacs.plist}.
@node Mac Directories
@section Volumes and Directories on Mac
@cindex file names (Mac OS)
This node applies to Mac OS Classic only.
The directory structure in Mac OS Classic is seen by Emacs as
@example
/@var{volumename}/@var{filename}
@end example
So when Emacs requests a file name, doing file name completion on
@file{/} will display all volumes on the system. You can use @file{..}
to go up a directory level.
On Mac OS Classic, to access files and folders on the desktop, look
in the folder @file{Desktop Folder} in your boot volume (this folder
is usually invisible in the Mac @code{Finder}).
On Mac OS Classic, Emacs creates the Mac folder
@file{:Preferences:Emacs:} in the @file{System Folder} and uses it as
the temporary directory. Emacs maps the directory name @file{/tmp/}
to that. Therefore it is best to avoid naming a volume @file{tmp}.
If everything works correctly, the program should leave no files in it
when it exits. You should be able to set the environment variable
@code{TMPDIR} to use another directory but this folder will still be
created.
@node Mac Font Specs
@section Specifying Fonts on Mac
@cindex font names (Mac OS)
It is rare that you need to specify a font name in Emacs; usually
you specify face attributes instead. For example, you can use 14pt
Courier by customizing the default face attributes for all frames:
@lisp
(set-face-attribute 'default nil
:family "courier" :height 140)
@end lisp
@noindent
Alternatively, an interactive one is also available
(@pxref{Face Customization}).
But when you do need to specify a font name in Emacs on Mac, use a
standard X font name:
@smallexample
-@var{maker}-@var{family}-@var{weight}-@var{slant}-@var{widthtype}-@var{style}@dots{}
@dots{}-@var{pixels}-@var{height}-@var{horiz}-@var{vert}-@var{spacing}-@var{width}-@var{charset}
@end smallexample
@noindent
@xref{Font X}. Wildcards are supported as they are on X.
Emacs on Mac OS Classic uses QuickDraw Text routines for drawing texts
by default. Emacs on Mac OS X uses @acronym{ATSUI, Apple Type Services
for Unicode Imaging} as well as QuickDraw Text, and most of the
characters other than Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ones are drawn using
the former by default.
@acronym{ATSUI}-compatible fonts have maker name @code{apple} and
charset @code{iso10646-1}. For example, 12-point Monaco can be specified
by the name:
@example
-apple-monaco-medium-r-normal--12-*-*-*-*-*-iso10646-1
@end example
Note that these names must be specified using a format containing all
14 @samp{-}s (not by
@samp{-apple-monaco-medium-r-normal--12-*-iso10646-1}, for instance),
because every @acronym{ATSUI}-compatible font is a scalable one.
QuickDraw Text fonts have maker name @code{apple} and various charset
names other than @code{iso10646-1}. Native Apple fonts in Mac Roman
encoding has charset @code{mac-roman}. You can specify a
@code{mac-roman} font for @acronym{ASCII} characters like
@smalllisp
(add-to-list
'default-frame-alist
'(font . "-apple-monaco-medium-r-normal--13-*-*-*-*-*-mac-roman"))
@end smalllisp
@noindent
but that does not extend to ISO-8859-1: specifying a @code{mac-roman}
font for Latin-1 characters introduces wrong glyphs.
Native Apple Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, Japanese,
Korean, Central European, Cyrillic, Symbol, and Dingbats fonts have
the charsets @samp{big5-0}, @samp{gb2312.1980-0},
@samp{jisx0208.1983-sjis} and @samp{jisx0201.1976-0},
@samp{ksc5601.1989-0}, @samp{mac-centraleurroman},
@samp{mac-cyrillic}, @samp{mac-symbol}, and @samp{mac-dingbats},
respectively.
The use of @code{create-fontset-from-fontset-spec} (@pxref{Defining
Fontsets}) for defining fontsets often results in wrong ones especially
when using only OS-bundled QuickDraw Text fonts. The recommended way to
use them is to create a fontset using
@code{create-fontset-from-mac-roman-font}:
@lisp
(create-fontset-from-mac-roman-font
"-apple-courier-medium-r-normal--13-*-*-*-*-*-mac-roman"
nil "foo")
@end lisp
@noindent
and then optionally specifying Chinese, Japanese, or Korean font
families using @code{set-fontset-font}:
@lisp
(set-fontset-font "fontset-foo"
'chinese-gb2312 '("song" . "gb2312.1980-0"))
@end lisp
Single-byte fonts converted from GNU fonts in BDF format, which are not
in the Mac Roman encoding, have foundry, family, and character sets
encoded in the names of their font suitcases. E.g., the font suitcase
@samp{ETL-Fixed-ISO8859-1} contains fonts which can be referred to by
the name @samp{-ETL-fixed-*-iso8859-1}.
@vindex mac-allow-anti-aliasing
Mac OS X 10.2 or later can use two types of text renderings: Quartz 2D
(aka Core Graphics) and QuickDraw. By default, Emacs uses the former on
such versions. It can be changed by setting
@code{mac-allow-anti-aliasing} to @code{t} (Quartz 2D) or @code{nil}
(QuickDraw). Both @acronym{ATSUI} and QuickDraw Text drawings are
affected by the value of this variable.
Appearance of text in small sizes will also be affected by the ``Turn
off text smoothing for font sizes @var{n} and smaller'' setting in the
General pane (Mac OS X 10.1 or 10.2) or in the Appearance pane (10.3 or
later) of the System Preferences. This threshold can alternatively be
set just for Emacs (i.e., not as the system-wide setting) using the
@command{defaults} command:
@example
defaults write org.gnu.Emacs AppleAntiAliasingThreshold @var{n}
@end example
@node Mac Functions
@section Mac-Specific Lisp Functions
@cindex Lisp functions specific to Mac OS
@findex do-applescript
The function @code{do-applescript} takes a string argument,
executes it as an AppleScript command, and returns the result as a
string.
@findex mac-file-name-to-posix
@findex posix-file-name-to-mac
The function @code{mac-file-name-to-posix} takes a Mac file name and
returns the GNU or Unix equivalent. The function
@code{posix-file-name-to-mac} performs the opposite conversion. They
are useful for constructing AppleScript commands to be passed to
@code{do-applescript}.
@findex mac-set-file-creator
@findex mac-get-file-creator
@findex mac-set-file-type
@findex mac-get-file-type
The functions @code{mac-set-file-creator},
@code{mac-get-file-creator}, @code{mac-set-file-type}, and
@code{mac-get-file-type} can be used to set and get creator and file
codes.
@findex mac-get-preference
The function @code{mac-get-preference} returns the preferences value
converted to a Lisp object for a specified key and application.
@ignore
arch-tag: a822c2ab-4273-4997-927e-c153bb71dcf6
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000,
@c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Maintaining, Abbrevs, Building, Top
@chapter Maintaining Large Programs
This chapter describes Emacs features for maintaining large
programs. The version control features (@pxref{Version Control}) are
also particularly useful for this purpose.
@menu
* Change Log:: Maintaining a change history for your program.
* Format of ChangeLog:: What the change log file looks like.
* Tags:: Go direct to any function in your program in one
command. Tags remembers which file it is in.
@ifnottex
* Emerge:: A convenient way of merging two versions of a program.
@end ifnottex
@end menu
@node Change Log
@section Change Logs
A change log file contains a chronological record of when and why you
have changed a program, consisting of a sequence of entries describing
individual changes. Normally it is kept in a file called
@file{ChangeLog} in the same directory as the file you are editing, or
one of its parent directories. A single @file{ChangeLog} file can
record changes for all the files in its directory and all its
subdirectories.
@cindex change log
@kindex C-x 4 a
@findex add-change-log-entry-other-window
The Emacs command @kbd{C-x 4 a} adds a new entry to the change log
file for the file you are editing
(@code{add-change-log-entry-other-window}). If that file is actually
a backup file, it makes an entry appropriate for the file's
parent---that is useful for making log entries for functions that
have been deleted in the current version.
@kbd{C-x 4 a} visits the change log file and creates a new entry
unless the most recent entry is for today's date and your name. It
also creates a new item for the current file. For many languages, it
can even guess the name of the function or other object that was
changed.
@vindex add-log-keep-changes-together
When the variable @code{add-log-keep-changes-together} is
non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x 4 a} adds to any existing item for the file
rather than starting a new item.
@vindex add-log-always-start-new-record
If @code{add-log-always-start-new-record} is non-@code{nil},
@kbd{C-x 4 a} always makes a new entry, even if the last entry
was made by you and on the same date.
@vindex change-log-version-info-enabled
@vindex change-log-version-number-regexp-list
@cindex file version in change log entries
If the value of the variable @code{change-log-version-info-enabled}
is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x 4 a} adds the file's version number to the
change log entry. It finds the version number by searching the first
ten percent of the file, using regular expressions from the variable
@code{change-log-version-number-regexp-list}.
@cindex Change Log mode
@findex change-log-mode
The change log file is visited in Change Log mode. In this major
mode, each bunch of grouped items counts as one paragraph, and each
entry is considered a page. This facilitates editing the entries.
@kbd{C-j} and auto-fill indent each new line like the previous line;
this is convenient for entering the contents of an entry.
@findex change-log-merge
You can use the command @kbd{M-x change-log-merge} to merge other
log files into a buffer in Change Log Mode, preserving the date
ordering of entries.
Version control systems are another way to keep track of changes in your
program and keep a change log. @xref{Log Buffer}.
@node Format of ChangeLog
@section Format of ChangeLog
A change log entry starts with a header line that contains the current
date, your name, and your email address (taken from the variable
@code{add-log-mailing-address}). Aside from these header lines, every
line in the change log starts with a space or a tab. The bulk of the
entry consists of @dfn{items}, each of which starts with a line starting
with whitespace and a star. Here are two entries, both dated in May
1993, with two items and one item respectively.
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
@smallexample
1993-05-25 Richard Stallman <rms@@gnu.org>
* man.el: Rename symbols `man-*' to `Man-*'.
(manual-entry): Make prompt string clearer.
* simple.el (blink-matching-paren-distance):
Change default to 12,000.
1993-05-24 Richard Stallman <rms@@gnu.org>
* vc.el (minor-mode-map-alist): Don't use it if it's void.
(vc-cancel-version): Doc fix.
@end smallexample
One entry can describe several changes; each change should have its
own item, or its own line in an item. Normally there should be a
blank line between items. When items are related (parts of the same
change, in different places), group them by leaving no blank line
between them.
You should put a copyright notice and permission notice at the
end of the change log file. Here is an example:
@smallexample
Copyright 1997, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Copying and distribution of this file, with or without modification, are
permitted provided the copyright notice and this notice are preserved.
@end smallexample
@noindent
Of course, you should substitute the proper years and copyright holder.
@node Tags
@section Tags Tables
@cindex tags table
A @dfn{tags table} is a description of how a multi-file program is
broken up into files. It lists the names of the component files and the
names and positions of the functions (or other named subunits) in each
file. Grouping the related files makes it possible to search or replace
through all the files with one command. Recording the function names
and positions makes possible the @kbd{M-.} command which finds the
definition of a function by looking up which of the files it is in.
Tags tables are stored in files called @dfn{tags table files}. The
conventional name for a tags table file is @file{TAGS}.
Each entry in the tags table records the name of one tag, the name of the
file that the tag is defined in (implicitly), and the position in that
file of the tag's definition. When a file parsed by @code{etags} is
generated from a different source file, like a C file generated from a
Cweb source file, the tags of the parsed file reference the source
file.
Just what names from the described files are recorded in the tags table
depends on the programming language of the described file. They
normally include all file names, functions and subroutines, and may
also include global variables, data types, and anything else
convenient. Each name recorded is called a @dfn{tag}.
@cindex C++ class browser, tags
@cindex tags, C++
@cindex class browser, C++
@cindex Ebrowse
See also the Ebrowse facility, which is tailored for C++.
@xref{Top,, Ebrowse, ebrowse, Ebrowse User's Manual}.
@menu
* Tag Syntax:: Tag syntax for various types of code and text files.
* Create Tags Table:: Creating a tags table with @code{etags}.
* Etags Regexps:: Create arbitrary tags using regular expressions.
* Select Tags Table:: How to visit a tags table.
* Find Tag:: Commands to find the definition of a specific tag.
* Tags Search:: Using a tags table for searching and replacing.
* List Tags:: Listing and finding tags defined in a file.
@end menu
@node Tag Syntax
@subsection Source File Tag Syntax
Here is how tag syntax is defined for the most popular languages:
@itemize @bullet
@item
In C code, any C function or typedef is a tag, and so are definitions of
@code{struct}, @code{union} and @code{enum}.
@code{#define} macro definitions, @code{#undef} and @code{enum}
constants are also
tags, unless you specify @samp{--no-defines} when making the tags table.
Similarly, global variables are tags, unless you specify
@samp{--no-globals}, and so are struct members, unless you specify
@samp{--no-members}. Use of @samp{--no-globals}, @samp{--no-defines}
and @samp{--no-members} can make the tags table file much smaller.
You can tag function declarations and external variables in addition
to function definitions by giving the @samp{--declarations} option to
@code{etags}.
@item
In C++ code, in addition to all the tag constructs of C code, member
functions are also recognized; member variables are also recognized,
unless you use the @samp{--no-members} option. Tags for variables and
functions in classes are named @samp{@var{class}::@var{variable}} and
@samp{@var{class}::@var{function}}. @code{operator} definitions have
tag names like @samp{operator+}.
@item
In Java code, tags include all the constructs recognized in C++, plus
the @code{interface}, @code{extends} and @code{implements} constructs.
Tags for variables and functions in classes are named
@samp{@var{class}.@var{variable}} and @samp{@var{class}.@var{function}}.
@item
In La@TeX{} text, the argument of any of the commands @code{\chapter},
@code{\section}, @code{\subsection}, @code{\subsubsection},
@code{\eqno}, @code{\label}, @code{\ref}, @code{\cite},
@code{\bibitem}, @code{\part}, @code{\appendix}, @code{\entry},
@code{\index}, @code{\def}, @code{\newcommand}, @code{\renewcommand},
@code{\newenvironment} or @code{\renewenvironment} is a tag.@refill
Other commands can make tags as well, if you specify them in the
environment variable @env{TEXTAGS} before invoking @code{etags}. The
value of this environment variable should be a colon-separated list of
command names. For example,
@example
TEXTAGS="mycommand:myothercommand"
export TEXTAGS
@end example
@noindent
specifies (using Bourne shell syntax) that the commands
@samp{\mycommand} and @samp{\myothercommand} also define tags.
@item
In Lisp code, any function defined with @code{defun}, any variable
defined with @code{defvar} or @code{defconst}, and in general the first
argument of any expression that starts with @samp{(def} in column zero is
a tag.
@item
In Scheme code, tags include anything defined with @code{def} or with a
construct whose name starts with @samp{def}. They also include variables
set with @code{set!} at top level in the file.
@end itemize
Several other languages are also supported:
@itemize @bullet
@item
In Ada code, functions, procedures, packages, tasks and types are
tags. Use the @samp{--packages-only} option to create tags for
packages only.
In Ada, the same name can be used for different kinds of entity
(e.g.@:, for a procedure and for a function). Also, for things like
packages, procedures and functions, there is the spec (i.e.@: the
interface) and the body (i.e.@: the implementation). To make it
easier to pick the definition you want, Ada tag name have suffixes
indicating the type of entity:
@table @samp
@item /b
package body.
@item /f
function.
@item /k
task.
@item /p
procedure.
@item /s
package spec.
@item /t
type.
@end table
Thus, @kbd{M-x find-tag @key{RET} bidule/b @key{RET}} will go
directly to the body of the package @code{bidule}, while @kbd{M-x
find-tag @key{RET} bidule @key{RET}} will just search for any tag
@code{bidule}.
@item
In assembler code, labels appearing at the beginning of a line,
followed by a colon, are tags.
@item
In Bison or Yacc input files, each rule defines as a tag the nonterminal
it constructs. The portions of the file that contain C code are parsed
as C code.
@item
In Cobol code, tags are paragraph names; that is, any word starting in
column 8 and followed by a period.
@item
In Erlang code, the tags are the functions, records and macros defined
in the file.
@item
In Fortran code, functions, subroutines and block data are tags.
@item
In HTML input files, the tags are the @code{title} and the @code{h1},
@code{h2}, @code{h3} headers. Also, tags are @code{name=} in anchors
and all occurrences of @code{id=}.
@item
In Lua input files, all functions are tags.
@item
In makefiles, targets are tags; additionally, variables are tags
unless you specify @samp{--no-globals}.
@item
In Objective C code, tags include Objective C definitions for classes,
class categories, methods and protocols. Tags for variables and
functions in classes are named @samp{@var{class}::@var{variable}} and
@samp{@var{class}::@var{function}}.
@item
In Pascal code, the tags are the functions and procedures defined in
the file.
@item
In Perl code, the tags are the packages, subroutines and variables
defined by the @code{package}, @code{sub}, @code{my} and @code{local}
keywords. Use @samp{--globals} if you want to tag global variables.
Tags for subroutines are named @samp{@var{package}::@var{sub}}. The
name for subroutines defined in the default package is
@samp{main::@var{sub}}.
@item
In PHP code, tags are functions, classes and defines. Vars are tags
too, unless you use the @samp{--no-members} option.
@item
In PostScript code, the tags are the functions.
@item
In Prolog code, tags are predicates and rules at the beginning of
line.
@item
In Python code, @code{def} or @code{class} at the beginning of a line
generate a tag.
@end itemize
You can also generate tags based on regexp matching (@pxref{Etags
Regexps}) to handle other formats and languages.
@node Create Tags Table
@subsection Creating Tags Tables
@cindex @code{etags} program
The @code{etags} program is used to create a tags table file. It knows
the syntax of several languages, as described in
@iftex
the previous section.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@ref{Tag Syntax}.
@end ifnottex
Here is how to run @code{etags}:
@example
etags @var{inputfiles}@dots{}
@end example
@noindent
The @code{etags} program reads the specified files, and writes a tags
table named @file{TAGS} in the current working directory.
If the specified files don't exist, @code{etags} looks for
compressed versions of them and uncompresses them to read them. Under
MS-DOS, @code{etags} also looks for file names like @file{mycode.cgz}
if it is given @samp{mycode.c} on the command line and @file{mycode.c}
does not exist.
@code{etags} recognizes the language used in an input file based on
its file name and contents. You can specify the language with the
@samp{--language=@var{name}} option, described below.
If the tags table data become outdated due to changes in the files
described in the table, the way to update the tags table is the same
way it was made in the first place. If the tags table fails to record
a tag, or records it for the wrong file, then Emacs cannot possibly
find its definition until you update the tags table. However, if the
position recorded in the tags table becomes a little bit wrong (due to
other editing), the worst consequence is a slight delay in finding the
tag. Even if the stored position is very far wrong, Emacs will still
find the tag, after searching most of the file for it. That delay is
hardly noticeable with today's computers.
Thus, there is no need to update the tags table after each edit.
You should update a tags table when you define new tags that you want
to have listed, or when you move tag definitions from one file to
another, or when changes become substantial.
One tags table can virtually include another. Specify the included
tags file name with the @samp{--include=@var{file}} option when
creating the file that is to include it. The latter file then acts as
if it covered all the source files specified in the included file, as
well as the files it directly contains.
If you specify the source files with relative file names when you run
@code{etags}, the tags file will contain file names relative to the
directory where the tags file was initially written. This way, you can
move an entire directory tree containing both the tags file and the
source files, and the tags file will still refer correctly to the source
files. If the tags file is in @file{/dev}, however, the file names are
made relative to the current working directory. This is useful, for
example, when writing the tags to @file{/dev/stdout}.
When using a relative file name, it should not be a symbolic link
pointing to a tags file in a different directory, because this would
generally render the file names invalid.
If you specify absolute file names as arguments to @code{etags}, then
the tags file will contain absolute file names. This way, the tags file
will still refer to the same files even if you move it, as long as the
source files remain in the same place. Absolute file names start with
@samp{/}, or with @samp{@var{device}:/} on MS-DOS and MS-Windows.
When you want to make a tags table from a great number of files, you
may have problems listing them on the command line, because some systems
have a limit on its length. The simplest way to circumvent this limit
is to tell @code{etags} to read the file names from its standard input,
by typing a dash in place of the file names, like this:
@smallexample
find . -name "*.[chCH]" -print | etags -
@end smallexample
Use the option @samp{--language=@var{name}} to specify the language
explicitly. You can intermix these options with file names; each one
applies to the file names that follow it. Specify
@samp{--language=auto} to tell @code{etags} to resume guessing the
language from the file names and file contents. Specify
@samp{--language=none} to turn off language-specific processing
entirely; then @code{etags} recognizes tags by regexp matching alone
(@pxref{Etags Regexps}).
The option @samp{--parse-stdin=@var{file}} is mostly useful when
calling @code{etags} from programs. It can be used (only once) in
place of a file name on the command line. @code{Etags} will read from
standard input and mark the produced tags as belonging to the file
@var{file}.
@samp{etags --help} outputs the list of the languages @code{etags}
knows, and the file name rules for guessing the language. It also prints
a list of all the available @code{etags} options, together with a short
explanation. If followed by one or more @samp{--language=@var{lang}}
options, it outputs detailed information about how tags are generated for
@var{lang}.
@node Etags Regexps
@subsection Etags Regexps
The @samp{--regex} option provides a general way of recognizing tags
based on regexp matching. You can freely intermix this option with
file names, and each one applies to the source files that follow it.
If you specify multiple @samp{--regex} options, all of them are used
in parallel. The syntax is:
@smallexample
--regex=[@var{@{language@}}]/@var{tagregexp}/[@var{nameregexp}/]@var{modifiers}
@end smallexample
The essential part of the option value is @var{tagregexp}, the
regexp for matching tags. It is always used anchored, that is, it
only matches at the beginning of a line. If you want to allow
indented tags, use a regexp that matches initial whitespace; start it
with @samp{[ \t]*}.
In these regular expressions, @samp{\} quotes the next character, and
all the GCC character escape sequences are supported (@samp{\a} for
bell, @samp{\b} for back space, @samp{\d} for delete, @samp{\e} for
escape, @samp{\f} for formfeed, @samp{\n} for newline, @samp{\r} for
carriage return, @samp{\t} for tab, and @samp{\v} for vertical tab).
Ideally, @var{tagregexp} should not match more characters than are
needed to recognize what you want to tag. If the syntax requires you
to write @var{tagregexp} so it matches more characters beyond the tag
itself, you should add a @var{nameregexp}, to pick out just the tag.
This will enable Emacs to find tags more accurately and to do
completion on tag names more reliably. You can find some examples
below.
The @var{modifiers} are a sequence of zero or more characters that
modify the way @code{etags} does the matching. A regexp with no
modifiers is applied sequentially to each line of the input file, in a
case-sensitive way. The modifiers and their meanings are:
@table @samp
@item i
Ignore case when matching this regexp.
@item m
Match this regular expression against the whole file, so that
multi-line matches are possible.
@item s
Match this regular expression against the whole file, and allow
@samp{.} in @var{tagregexp} to match newlines.
@end table
The @samp{-R} option cancels all the regexps defined by preceding
@samp{--regex} options. It too applies to the file names following
it. Here's an example:
@smallexample
etags --regex=/@var{reg1}/i voo.doo --regex=/@var{reg2}/m \
bar.ber -R --lang=lisp los.er
@end smallexample
@noindent
Here @code{etags} chooses the parsing language for @file{voo.doo} and
@file{bar.ber} according to their contents. @code{etags} also uses
@var{reg1} to recognize additional tags in @file{voo.doo}, and both
@var{reg1} and @var{reg2} to recognize additional tags in
@file{bar.ber}. @var{reg1} is checked against each line of
@file{voo.doo} and @file{bar.ber}, in a case-insensitive way, while
@var{reg2} is checked against the whole @file{bar.ber} file,
permitting multi-line matches, in a case-sensitive way. @code{etags}
uses only the Lisp tags rules, with no user-specified regexp matching,
to recognize tags in @file{los.er}.
You can restrict a @samp{--regex} option to match only files of a
given language by using the optional prefix @var{@{language@}}.
(@samp{etags --help} prints the list of languages recognized by
@code{etags}.) This is particularly useful when storing many
predefined regular expressions for @code{etags} in a file. The
following example tags the @code{DEFVAR} macros in the Emacs source
files, for the C language only:
@smallexample
--regex='@{c@}/[ \t]*DEFVAR_[A-Z_ \t(]+"\([^"]+\)"/'
@end smallexample
@noindent
When you have complex regular expressions, you can store the list of
them in a file. The following option syntax instructs @code{etags} to
read two files of regular expressions. The regular expressions
contained in the second file are matched without regard to case.
@smallexample
--regex=@@@var{case-sensitive-file} --ignore-case-regex=@@@var{ignore-case-file}
@end smallexample
@noindent
A regex file for @code{etags} contains one regular expression per
line. Empty lines, and lines beginning with space or tab are ignored.
When the first character in a line is @samp{@@}, @code{etags} assumes
that the rest of the line is the name of another file of regular
expressions; thus, one such file can include another file. All the
other lines are taken to be regular expressions. If the first
non-whitespace text on the line is @samp{--}, that line is a comment.
For example, we can create a file called @samp{emacs.tags} with the
following contents:
@smallexample
-- This is for GNU Emacs C source files
@{c@}/[ \t]*DEFVAR_[A-Z_ \t(]+"\([^"]+\)"/\1/
@end smallexample
@noindent
and then use it like this:
@smallexample
etags --regex=@@emacs.tags *.[ch] */*.[ch]
@end smallexample
Here are some more examples. The regexps are quoted to protect them
from shell interpretation.
@itemize @bullet
@item
Tag Octave files:
@smallexample
etags --language=none \
--regex='/[ \t]*function.*=[ \t]*\([^ \t]*\)[ \t]*(/\1/' \
--regex='/###key \(.*\)/\1/' \
--regex='/[ \t]*global[ \t].*/' \
*.m
@end smallexample
@noindent
Note that tags are not generated for scripts, so that you have to add
a line by yourself of the form @samp{###key @var{scriptname}} if you
want to jump to it.
@item
Tag Tcl files:
@smallexample
etags --language=none --regex='/proc[ \t]+\([^ \t]+\)/\1/' *.tcl
@end smallexample
@item
Tag VHDL files:
@smallexample
etags --language=none \
--regex='/[ \t]*\(ARCHITECTURE\|CONFIGURATION\) +[^ ]* +OF/' \
--regex='/[ \t]*\(ATTRIBUTE\|ENTITY\|FUNCTION\|PACKAGE\
\( BODY\)?\|PROCEDURE\|PROCESS\|TYPE\)[ \t]+\([^ \t(]+\)/\3/'
@end smallexample
@end itemize
@node Select Tags Table
@subsection Selecting a Tags Table
@vindex tags-file-name
@findex visit-tags-table
Emacs has at any time one @dfn{selected} tags table, and all the
commands for working with tags tables use the selected one. To select
a tags table, type @kbd{M-x visit-tags-table}, which reads the tags
table file name as an argument, with @file{TAGS} in the default
directory as the default.
Emacs does not actually read in the tags table contents until you
try to use them; all @code{visit-tags-table} does is store the file
name in the variable @code{tags-file-name}, and setting the variable
yourself is just as good. The variable's initial value is @code{nil};
that value tells all the commands for working with tags tables that
they must ask for a tags table file name to use.
Using @code{visit-tags-table} when a tags table is already loaded
gives you a choice: you can add the new tags table to the current list
of tags tables, or start a new list. The tags commands use all the tags
tables in the current list. If you start a new list, the new tags table
is used @emph{instead} of others. If you add the new table to the
current list, it is used @emph{as well as} the others.
@vindex tags-table-list
You can specify a precise list of tags tables by setting the variable
@code{tags-table-list} to a list of strings, like this:
@c keep this on two lines for formatting in smallbook
@example
@group
(setq tags-table-list
'("~/emacs" "/usr/local/lib/emacs/src"))
@end group
@end example
@noindent
This tells the tags commands to look at the @file{TAGS} files in your
@file{~/emacs} directory and in the @file{/usr/local/lib/emacs/src}
directory. The order depends on which file you are in and which tags
table mentions that file, as explained above.
Do not set both @code{tags-file-name} and @code{tags-table-list}.
@node Find Tag
@subsection Finding a Tag
The most important thing that a tags table enables you to do is to find
the definition of a specific tag.
@table @kbd
@item M-.@: @var{tag} @key{RET}
Find first definition of @var{tag} (@code{find-tag}).
@item C-u M-.
Find next alternate definition of last tag specified.
@item C-u - M-.
Go back to previous tag found.
@item C-M-. @var{pattern} @key{RET}
Find a tag whose name matches @var{pattern} (@code{find-tag-regexp}).
@item C-u C-M-.
Find the next tag whose name matches the last pattern used.
@item C-x 4 .@: @var{tag} @key{RET}
Find first definition of @var{tag}, but display it in another window
(@code{find-tag-other-window}).
@item C-x 5 .@: @var{tag} @key{RET}
Find first definition of @var{tag}, and create a new frame to select the
buffer (@code{find-tag-other-frame}).
@item M-*
Pop back to where you previously invoked @kbd{M-.} and friends.
@end table
@kindex M-.
@findex find-tag
@kbd{M-.}@: (@code{find-tag}) is the command to find the definition of
a specified tag. It searches through the tags table for that tag, as a
string, and then uses the tags table info to determine the file that the
definition is in and the approximate character position in the file of
the definition. Then @code{find-tag} visits that file, moves point to
the approximate character position, and searches ever-increasing
distances away to find the tag definition.
If an empty argument is given (just type @key{RET}), the balanced
expression in the buffer before or around point is used as the
@var{tag} argument. @xref{Expressions}.
You don't need to give @kbd{M-.} the full name of the tag; a part
will do. This is because @kbd{M-.} finds tags in the table which
contain @var{tag} as a substring. However, it prefers an exact match
to a substring match. To find other tags that match the same
substring, give @code{find-tag} a numeric argument, as in @kbd{C-u
M-.}; this does not read a tag name, but continues searching the tags
table's text for another tag containing the same substring last used.
If you have a real @key{META} key, @kbd{M-0 M-.}@: is an easier
alternative to @kbd{C-u M-.}.
@kindex C-x 4 .
@findex find-tag-other-window
@kindex C-x 5 .
@findex find-tag-other-frame
Like most commands that can switch buffers, @code{find-tag} has a
variant that displays the new buffer in another window, and one that
makes a new frame for it. The former is @w{@kbd{C-x 4 .}}, which invokes
the command @code{find-tag-other-window}. The latter is @w{@kbd{C-x 5 .}},
which invokes @code{find-tag-other-frame}.
To move back to places you've found tags recently, use @kbd{C-u -
M-.}; more generally, @kbd{M-.} with a negative numeric argument. This
command can take you to another buffer. @w{@kbd{C-x 4 .}} with a negative
argument finds the previous tag location in another window.
@kindex M-*
@findex pop-tag-mark
@vindex find-tag-marker-ring-length
As well as going back to places you've found tags recently, you can go
back to places @emph{from where} you found them. Use @kbd{M-*}, which
invokes the command @code{pop-tag-mark}, for this. Typically you would
find and study the definition of something with @kbd{M-.} and then
return to where you were with @kbd{M-*}.
Both @kbd{C-u - M-.} and @kbd{M-*} allow you to retrace your steps to
a depth determined by the variable @code{find-tag-marker-ring-length}.
@findex find-tag-regexp
@kindex C-M-.
The command @kbd{C-M-.} (@code{find-tag-regexp}) visits the tags that
match a specified regular expression. It is just like @kbd{M-.} except
that it does regexp matching instead of substring matching.
@node Tags Search
@subsection Searching and Replacing with Tags Tables
@cindex search and replace in multiple files
@cindex multiple-file search and replace
The commands in this section visit and search all the files listed
in the selected tags table, one by one. For these commands, the tags
table serves only to specify a sequence of files to search. These
commands scan the list of tags tables starting with the first tags
table (if any) that describes the current file, proceed from there to
the end of the list, and then scan from the beginning of the list
until they have covered all the tables in the list.
@table @kbd
@item M-x tags-search @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Search for @var{regexp} through the files in the selected tags
table.
@item M-x tags-query-replace @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET} @var{replacement} @key{RET}
Perform a @code{query-replace-regexp} on each file in the selected tags table.
@item M-,
Restart one of the commands above, from the current location of point
(@code{tags-loop-continue}).
@end table
@findex tags-search
@kbd{M-x tags-search} reads a regexp using the minibuffer, then
searches for matches in all the files in the selected tags table, one
file at a time. It displays the name of the file being searched so you
can follow its progress. As soon as it finds an occurrence,
@code{tags-search} returns.
@kindex M-,
@findex tags-loop-continue
Having found one match, you probably want to find all the rest. To find
one more match, type @kbd{M-,} (@code{tags-loop-continue}) to resume the
@code{tags-search}. This searches the rest of the current buffer, followed
by the remaining files of the tags table.@refill
@findex tags-query-replace
@kbd{M-x tags-query-replace} performs a single
@code{query-replace-regexp} through all the files in the tags table. It
reads a regexp to search for and a string to replace with, just like
ordinary @kbd{M-x query-replace-regexp}. It searches much like @kbd{M-x
tags-search}, but repeatedly, processing matches according to your
input. @xref{Replace}, for more information on query replace.
@vindex tags-case-fold-search
@cindex case-sensitivity and tags search
You can control the case-sensitivity of tags search commands by
customizing the value of the variable @code{tags-case-fold-search}. The
default is to use the same setting as the value of
@code{case-fold-search} (@pxref{Search Case}).
It is possible to get through all the files in the tags table with a
single invocation of @kbd{M-x tags-query-replace}. But often it is
useful to exit temporarily, which you can do with any input event that
has no special query replace meaning. You can resume the query replace
subsequently by typing @kbd{M-,}; this command resumes the last tags
search or replace command that you did.
The commands in this section carry out much broader searches than the
@code{find-tag} family. The @code{find-tag} commands search only for
definitions of tags that match your substring or regexp. The commands
@code{tags-search} and @code{tags-query-replace} find every occurrence
of the regexp, as ordinary search commands and replace commands do in
the current buffer.
These commands create buffers only temporarily for the files that they
have to search (those which are not already visited in Emacs buffers).
Buffers in which no match is found are quickly killed; the others
continue to exist.
It may have struck you that @code{tags-search} is a lot like
@code{grep}. You can also run @code{grep} itself as an inferior of
Emacs and have Emacs show you the matching lines one by one.
@xref{Grep Searching}.
@node List Tags
@subsection Tags Table Inquiries
@table @kbd
@item M-x list-tags @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Display a list of the tags defined in the program file @var{file}.
@item M-x tags-apropos @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Display a list of all tags matching @var{regexp}.
@end table
@findex list-tags
@kbd{M-x list-tags} reads the name of one of the files described by
the selected tags table, and displays a list of all the tags defined in
that file. The ``file name'' argument is really just a string to
compare against the file names recorded in the tags table; it is read as
a string rather than as a file name. Therefore, completion and
defaulting are not available, and you must enter the file name the same
way it appears in the tags table. Do not include a directory as part of
the file name unless the file name recorded in the tags table includes a
directory.
@findex tags-apropos
@vindex tags-apropos-verbose
@kbd{M-x tags-apropos} is like @code{apropos} for tags
(@pxref{Apropos}). It finds all the tags in the selected tags table
whose entries match @var{regexp}, and displays them. If the variable
@code{tags-apropos-verbose} is non-@code{nil}, it displays the names
of the tags files together with the tag names.
@vindex tags-tag-face
@vindex tags-apropos-additional-actions
You can customize the appearance of the output by setting the
variable @code{tags-tag-face} to a face. You can display additional
output with @kbd{M-x tags-apropos} by customizing the variable
@code{tags-apropos-additional-actions}---see its documentation for
details.
You can also use the collection of tag names to complete a symbol
name in the buffer. @xref{Symbol Completion}.
@ifnottex
@include emerge-xtra.texi
@end ifnottex
@ignore
arch-tag: b9d83dfb-82ea-4ff6-bab5-05a3617091fb
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Major Modes, Indentation, International, Top
@chapter Major Modes
@cindex major modes
@cindex mode, major
@kindex TAB @r{(and major modes)}
@kindex DEL @r{(and major modes)}
@kindex C-j @r{(and major modes)}
Emacs provides many alternative @dfn{major modes}, each of which
customizes Emacs for editing text of a particular sort. The major modes
are mutually exclusive, and each buffer has one major mode at any time.
The mode line normally shows the name of the current major mode, in
parentheses (@pxref{Mode Line}).
The least specialized major mode is called @dfn{Fundamental mode}.
This mode has no mode-specific redefinitions or variable settings, so
that each Emacs command behaves in its most general manner, and each
user option variable is in its default state. For editing text of a
specific type that Emacs knows about, such as Lisp code or English
text, you should switch to the appropriate major mode, such as Lisp
mode or Text mode.
Selecting a major mode changes the meanings of a few keys to become
more specifically adapted to the language being edited. The ones that
are changed frequently are @key{TAB}, @key{DEL}, and @kbd{C-j}. The
prefix key @kbd{C-c} normally contains mode-specific commands. In
addition, the commands which handle comments use the mode to determine
how comments are to be delimited. Many major modes redefine the
syntactical properties of characters appearing in the buffer.
@xref{Syntax}.
The major modes fall into three major groups. The first group
contains modes for normal text, either plain or with mark-up. It
includes Text mode, HTML mode, SGML mode, @TeX{} mode and Outline
mode. The second group contains modes for specific programming
languages. These include Lisp mode (which has several variants), C
mode, Fortran mode, and others. The remaining major modes are not
intended for use on users' files; they are used in buffers created for
specific purposes by Emacs, such as Dired mode for buffers made by
Dired (@pxref{Dired}), Mail mode for buffers made by @kbd{C-x m}
(@pxref{Sending Mail}), and Shell mode for buffers used for
communicating with an inferior shell process (@pxref{Interactive
Shell}).
Most programming-language major modes specify that only blank lines
separate paragraphs. This is to make the paragraph commands useful.
(@xref{Paragraphs}.) They also cause Auto Fill mode to use the
definition of @key{TAB} to indent the new lines it creates. This is
because most lines in a program are usually indented
(@pxref{Indentation}).
@menu
* Choosing Modes:: How major modes are specified or chosen.
@end menu
@node Choosing Modes,,Major Modes,Major Modes
@section How Major Modes are Chosen
@cindex choosing a major mode
You can select a major mode explicitly for the current buffer, but
most of the time Emacs determines which mode to use based on the file
name or on special text in the file.
To explicitly select a new major, you use an @kbd{M-x} command.
Take the name of a major mode and add @code{-mode} to get the name of
the command to select that mode. Thus, you can enter Lisp mode by
executing @kbd{M-x lisp-mode}.
@vindex auto-mode-alist
When you visit a file, Emacs usually chooses the right major mode based
on the file's name. For example, files whose names end in @samp{.c} are
edited in C mode. The correspondence between file names and major modes is
controlled by the variable @code{auto-mode-alist}. Its value is a list in
which each element has this form,
@example
(@var{regexp} . @var{mode-function})
@end example
@noindent
or this form,
@example
(@var{regexp} @var{mode-function} @var{flag})
@end example
@noindent
For example, one element normally found in the list has the form
@code{(@t{"\\.c\\'"} . c-mode)}, and it is responsible for selecting C
mode for files whose names end in @file{.c}. (Note that @samp{\\} is
needed in Lisp syntax to include a @samp{\} in the string, which must
be used to suppress the special meaning of @samp{.} in regexps.) If
the element has the form @code{(@var{regexp} @var{mode-function}
@var{flag})} and @var{flag} is non-@code{nil}, then after calling
@var{mode-function}, Emacs discards the suffix that matched
@var{regexp} and searches the list again for another match.
@vindex magic-mode-alist
Sometimes the major mode is determined from the way the file's text
begins. The variable @code{magic-mode-alist} controls this. Its value
is a list of elements of these forms:
@example
(@var{regexp} . @var{mode-function})
(@var{match-function} . @var{mode-function})
@end example
@noindent
The first form looks like an element of @code{auto-mode-alist}, but it
doesn't work the same: this @var{regexp} is matched against the text
at the start of the buffer, not against the file name. Likewise, the
second form calls @var{match-function} at the beginning of the buffer,
and if the function returns non-@code{nil}, the @var{mode-function} is
called. @code{magic-mode-alist} takes priority over
@code{auto-mode-alist}.
You can specify the major mode to use for editing a certain file by
special text in the first nonblank line of the file. The
mode name should appear in this line both preceded and followed by
@samp{-*-}. Other text may appear on the line as well. For example,
@example
;-*-Lisp-*-
@end example
@noindent
tells Emacs to use Lisp mode. Such an explicit specification overrides
any defaults based on the file name. Note how the semicolon is used
to make Lisp treat this line as a comment.
Another format of mode specification is
@example
-*- mode: @var{modename};-*-
@end example
@noindent
which allows you to specify local variables as well, like this:
@example
-*- mode: @var{modename}; @var{var}: @var{value}; @dots{} -*-
@end example
@noindent
@xref{File Variables}, for more information about this.
@vindex auto-mode-case-fold
On systems with case-insensitive file names, only a single
case-insensitive search through the @code{auto-mode-alist} is made.
On other systems, Emacs normally performs a single case-sensitive
search through the alist, but if you set this variable to a
non-@code{nil} value, Emacs will perform a second case-insensitive
search if the first search fails.
@vindex interpreter-mode-alist
When a file's contents begin with @samp{#!}, it can serve as an
executable shell command, which works by running an interpreter named on
the file's first line. The rest of the file is used as input to the
interpreter.
When you visit such a file in Emacs, if the file's name does not
specify a major mode, Emacs uses the interpreter name on the first line
to choose a mode. If the first line is the name of a recognized
interpreter program, such as @samp{perl} or @samp{tcl}, Emacs uses a
mode appropriate for programs for that interpreter. The variable
@code{interpreter-mode-alist} specifies the correspondence between
interpreter program names and major modes.
When the first line starts with @samp{#!}, you cannot (on many
systems) use the @samp{-*-} feature on the first line, because the
system would get confused when running the interpreter. So Emacs looks
for @samp{-*-} on the second line in such files as well as on the
first line.
@vindex default-major-mode
When you visit a file that does not specify a major mode to use, or
when you create a new buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, the variable
@code{default-major-mode} specifies which major mode to use. Normally
its value is the symbol @code{fundamental-mode}, which specifies
Fundamental mode. If @code{default-major-mode} is @code{nil}, the major
mode is taken from the previously current buffer.
@findex normal-mode
If you change the major mode of a buffer, you can go back to the major
mode Emacs would choose automatically: use the command @kbd{M-x
normal-mode} to do this. This is the same function that
@code{find-file} calls to choose the major mode. It also processes
the file's @samp{-*-} line or local variables list (if any).
@xref{File Variables}.
@vindex change-major-mode-with-file-name
The commands @kbd{C-x C-w} and @code{set-visited-file-name} change to
a new major mode if the new file name implies a mode (@pxref{Saving}).
(@kbd{C-x C-s} does this too, if the buffer wasn't visiting a file.)
However, this does not happen if the buffer contents specify a major
mode, and certain ``special'' major modes do not allow the mode to
change. You can turn off this mode-changing feature by setting
@code{change-major-mode-with-file-name} to @code{nil}.
@ignore
arch-tag: f2558800-cf32-4839-8acb-7d3b4df2a155
@end ignore

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#### -*- Makefile -*- for the Emacs Manual and other documentation.
# Copyright (C) 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
# This file is part of GNU Emacs.
# GNU Emacs is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
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# Where to find the source code. The source code for Emacs's C kernel is
# expected to be in $(srcdir)/src, and the source code for Emacs's
# utility programs is expected to be in $(srcdir)/lib-src. This is
# set by the configure script's `--srcdir' option.
srcdir=.
infodir = $(srcdir)/../info
# The makeinfo program is part of the Texinfo distribution.
MAKEINFO = makeinfo --force
MULTI_INSTALL_INFO = $(srcdir)\..\..\nt\multi-install-info.bat
INFO_TARGETS = $(infodir)/emacs
DVI_TARGETS = emacs.dvi
INFOSOURCES = info.texi
# The following rule does not work with all versions of `make'.
.SUFFIXES: .texi .dvi
.texi.dvi:
texi2dvi $<
TEXI2DVI = texi2dvi
ENVADD = $(srcdir)\..\..\nt\envadd.bat "TEXINPUTS=$(srcdir);$(TEXINPUTS)" \
"MAKEINFO=$(MAKEINFO) -I$(srcdir)" /C
EMACS_XTRA=\
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$(srcdir)/vc1-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/vc2-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/fortran-xtra.texi \
$(srcdir)/msdog-xtra.texi
EMACSSOURCES= \
$(srcdir)/emacs.texi \
$(srcdir)/doclicense.texi \
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$(srcdir)/display.texi \
$(srcdir)/search.texi \
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$(srcdir)/abbrevs.texi \
$(srcdir)/sending.texi \
$(srcdir)/rmail.texi \
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$(srcdir)/custom.texi \
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$(srcdir)/cmdargs.texi \
$(srcdir)/xresources.texi \
$(srcdir)/anti.texi \
$(srcdir)/macos.texi \
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$(srcdir)/gnu.texi \
$(srcdir)/glossary.texi \
$(srcdir)/ack.texi \
$(srcdir)/kmacro.texi \
$(EMACS_XTRA)
info: $(INFO_TARGETS)
dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS)
# Note that all the Info targets build the Info files
# in srcdir. There is no provision for Info files
# to exist in the build directory.
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$(infodir)/dir:
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$(MAKEINFO) emacs.texi
emacs.dvi: $(EMACSSOURCES)
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$(ENVADD) $(TEXI2DVI) $(srcdir)/emacs-xtra.texi
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- $(DEL) *.dvi
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- $(DEL) *.aux *.cps *.fns *.kys *.pgs *.vrs *.toc
# Don't delete these, because they are outside the current directory.
# for file in $(INFO_TARGETS); do rm -f $${file}*; done
# Formerly this directory had texindex.c and getopt.c in it
# and this makefile built them to make texindex.
# That caused trouble because this is run entirely in the source directory.
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# it is ok to expect texindex from elsewhere also.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Mark, Killing, Help, Top
@chapter The Mark and the Region
@cindex mark
@cindex setting a mark
@cindex region
Many Emacs commands operate on an arbitrary contiguous part of the
current buffer. To specify the text for such a command to operate on,
you set @dfn{the mark} at one end of it, and move point to the other
end. The text between point and the mark is called @dfn{the region}.
Emacs highlights the region whenever there is one, if you enable
Transient Mark mode (@pxref{Transient Mark}).
Certain Emacs commands set the mark; other editing commands do not
affect it, so the mark remains where you set it last. Each Emacs
buffer has its own mark, and setting the mark in one buffer has no
effect on other buffers' marks. When you return to a buffer that was
current earlier, its mark is at the same place as before.
The ends of the region are always point and the mark. It doesn't
matter which of them was put in its current place first, or which one
comes earlier in the text---the region starts from point or the mark
(whichever comes first), and ends at point or the mark (whichever
comes last). Every time you move point, or set the mark in a new
place, the region changes.
Many commands that insert text, such as @kbd{C-y} (@code{yank}) and
@kbd{M-x insert-buffer}, position point and the mark at opposite ends
of the inserted text, so that the region consists of the text just
inserted.
Aside from delimiting the region, the mark is also useful for
remembering a spot that you may want to go back to. To make this
feature more useful, each buffer remembers 16 previous locations of the
mark in the @dfn{mark ring}.
@menu
* Setting Mark:: Commands to set the mark.
* Transient Mark:: How to make Emacs highlight the region--
when there is one.
* Momentary Mark:: Enabling Transient Mark mode momentarily.
* Using Region:: Summary of ways to operate on contents of the region.
* Marking Objects:: Commands to put region around textual units.
* Mark Ring:: Previous mark positions saved so you can go back there.
* Global Mark Ring:: Previous mark positions in various buffers.
@end menu
@node Setting Mark
@section Setting the Mark
Here are some commands for setting the mark:
@table @kbd
@item C-@key{SPC}
Set the mark where point is (@code{set-mark-command}).
@item C-@@
The same.
@item C-x C-x
Interchange mark and point (@code{exchange-point-and-mark}).
@item Drag-Mouse-1
Set point and the mark around the text you drag across.
@item Mouse-3
Set the mark where point is, then move point to where you click
(@code{mouse-save-then-kill}).
@end table
For example, suppose you wish to convert part of the buffer to
upper case, using the @kbd{C-x C-u} (@code{upcase-region}) command,
which operates on the text in the region. You can first go to the
beginning of the text to be capitalized, type @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} to put
the mark there, move to the end, and then type @kbd{C-x C-u}. Or, you
can set the mark at the end of the text, move to the beginning, and then
type @kbd{C-x C-u}.
@kindex C-SPC
@findex set-mark-command
The most common way to set the mark is with the @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} command
(@code{set-mark-command}). This sets the mark where point is. Then you
can move point away, leaving the mark behind.
There are two ways to set the mark with the mouse. You can drag mouse
button one across a range of text; that puts point where you release the
mouse button, and sets the mark at the other end of that range. Or you
can click mouse button three, which sets the mark at point (like
@kbd{C-@key{SPC}}) and then moves point where you clicked (like
@kbd{Mouse-1}).
Using the mouse to mark a region copies the region into the kill
ring in addition to setting the mark; that gives behavior consistent
with other window-driven applications. If you don't want to modify
the kill ring, you must use keyboard commands to set the mark.
@xref{Mouse Commands}.
@kindex C-x C-x
@findex exchange-point-and-mark
When Emacs was developed, terminals had only one cursor, so Emacs
does not show where the mark is located--you have to remember. If you
enable Transient Mark mode (see below), then the region is highlighted
when it is active; you can tell mark is at the other end of the
highlighted region. But this only applies when the mark is active.
The usual solution to this problem is to set the mark and then use
it soon, before you forget where it is. Alternatively, you can see
where the mark is with the command @kbd{C-x C-x}
(@code{exchange-point-and-mark}) which puts the mark where point was
and point where the mark was. The extent of the region is unchanged,
but the cursor and point are now at the previous position of the mark.
In Transient Mark mode, this command also reactivates the mark.
@kbd{C-x C-x} is also useful when you are satisfied with the position
of point but want to move the other end of the region (where the mark
is); do @kbd{C-x C-x} to put point at that end of the region, and then
move it. Using @kbd{C-x C-x} a second time, if necessary, puts the mark at
the new position with point back at its original position.
For more facilities that allow you to go to previously set marks, see
@ref{Mark Ring}.
@kindex C-@@
There is no such character as @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} in @acronym{ASCII};
when you type @key{SPC} while holding down @key{CTRL} on a text
terminal, what you get is the character @kbd{C-@@}. This key is also
bound to @code{set-mark-command}--so unless you are unlucky enough to
have a text terminal where typing @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} does not produce
@kbd{C-@@}, you might as well think of this character as
@kbd{C-@key{SPC}}.
@node Transient Mark
@section Transient Mark Mode
@cindex mode, Transient Mark
@cindex Transient Mark mode
@cindex highlighting region
@cindex region highlighting
On a terminal that supports colors, Emacs has the ability to
highlight the current region. But normally it does not. Why not?
In the normal mode of use, every command that sets the mark also
activates it, and nothing ever deactivates it. Thus, once you have
set the mark in a buffer, there is @emph{always} a region in that
buffer. Highlighting the region all the time would be a nuisance. So
normally Emacs highlights the region only immediately after you have
selected one with the mouse.
If you want region highlighting, you can use Transient Mark mode.
This is a more rigid mode of operation in which the region ``lasts''
only until you use it; operating on the region text deactivates the
mark, so there is no region any more. Therefore, you must explicitly
set up a region for each command that uses one.
When Transient Mark mode is enabled, Emacs highlights the region,
whenever there is a region. In Transient Mark mode, most of the time
there is no region; therefore, highlighting the region when it exists
is useful and not annoying.
@findex transient-mark-mode
To enable Transient Mark mode, type @kbd{M-x transient-mark-mode}.
This command toggles the mode; you can use the same command to turn
the mode off again.
Here are the details of Transient Mark mode:
@itemize @bullet
@item
To set the mark, type @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} (@code{set-mark-command}).
This makes the mark active and thus begins highlighting of the region.
As you move point, you will see the highlighted region grow and
shrink.
@item
The mouse commands for specifying the mark also make it active. So do
keyboard commands whose purpose is to specify a region, including
@kbd{M-@@}, @kbd{C-M-@@}, @kbd{M-h}, @kbd{C-M-h}, @kbd{C-x C-p}, and
@kbd{C-x h}.
@item
You can tell that the mark is active because the region is highlighted.
@item
When the mark is active, you can execute commands that operate on the
region, such as killing, indenting, or writing to a file.
@item
Any change to the buffer, such as inserting or deleting a character,
deactivates the mark. This means any subsequent command that operates
on a region will get an error and refuse to operate. You can make the
region active again by typing @kbd{C-x C-x}.
@item
If Delete Selection mode is also enabled, some commands delete the
region when used while the mark is active. @xref{Mouse Commands}.
@item
Quitting with @kbd{C-g} deactivates the mark.
@item
Commands like @kbd{M->} and @kbd{C-s}, that ``leave the mark behind'' in
addition to some other primary purpose, do not activate the new mark.
You can activate the new region by executing @kbd{C-x C-x}
(@code{exchange-point-and-mark}).
@item
Commands that normally set the mark before moving long distances (like
@kbd{M-<} and @kbd{C-s}) do not alter the mark in Transient Mark mode
when the mark is active.
@item
Some commands operate on the region if a region is active. For
instance, @kbd{C-x u} in Transient Mark mode operates on the region,
when there is a region. (Outside Transient Mark mode, you must type
@kbd{C-u C-x u} if you want it to operate on the region.)
@xref{Undo}. Other commands that act this way are identified in their
own documentation.
@end itemize
The highlighting of the region uses the @code{region} face; you can
customize the appearance of the highlighted region by changing this
face. @xref{Face Customization}.
@vindex highlight-nonselected-windows
When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point (though they
all share one common mark position). Ordinarily, only the selected
window highlights its region (@pxref{Windows}). However, if the
variable @code{highlight-nonselected-windows} is non-@code{nil}, then
each window highlights its own region (provided that Transient Mark mode
is enabled and the mark in the window's buffer is active).
@vindex mark-even-if-inactive
If the variable @code{mark-even-if-inactive} is non-@code{nil} in
Transient Mark mode, then commands can use the mark and the region
even when it is inactive. Region highlighting appears and disappears
just as it normally does in Transient Mark mode, but the mark doesn't
really go away when the highlighting disappears, so you can still use
region commands.
@cindex Zmacs mode
Transient Mark mode is also sometimes known as ``Zmacs mode''
because the Zmacs editor on the MIT Lisp Machine handled the mark in a
similar way.
@node Momentary Mark
@section Using Transient Mark Mode Momentarily
If you don't like Transient Mark mode in general, you might still
want to use it once in a while. To do this, type @kbd{C-@key{SPC}
C-@key{SPC}} or @kbd{C-u C-x C-x}. These commands set or activate the
mark, and enable Transient Mark mode only until the mark is
deactivated.
@table @kbd
@item C-@key{SPC} C-@key{SPC}
@kindex C-@key{SPC} C-@key{SPC}
Set the mark at point (like plain @kbd{C-@key{SPC}}), and enable
Transient Mark mode just once until the mark is deactivated. (This is
not really a separate command; you are using the @kbd{C-@key{SPC}}
command twice.)
@item C-u C-x C-x
@kindex C-u C-x C-x
Activate the mark without changing it; enable Transient Mark mode just
once, until the mark is deactivated. (This is the @kbd{C-x C-x}
command, @code{exchange-point-and-mark}, with a prefix argument.)
@end table
One of the secondary features of Transient Mark mode is that certain
commands operate only on the region, when there is an active region.
If you don't use Transient Mark mode, the region once set never
becomes inactive, so there is no way for these commands to make such a
distinction. Enabling Transient Mark mode momentarily gives you a way
to use these commands on the region.
Momentary use of Transient Mark mode is also a way to highlight the
region for the time being.
@node Using Region
@section Operating on the Region
@cindex operations on a marked region
Once you have a region and the mark is active, here are some of the
ways you can operate on the region:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Kill it with @kbd{C-w} (@pxref{Killing}).
@item
Save it in a register with @kbd{C-x r s} (@pxref{Registers}).
@item
Save it in a buffer or a file (@pxref{Accumulating Text}).
@item
Convert case with @kbd{C-x C-l} or @kbd{C-x C-u} (@pxref{Case}).
@item
Indent it with @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} or @kbd{C-M-\} (@pxref{Indentation}).
@item
Fill it as text with @kbd{M-x fill-region} (@pxref{Filling}).
@item
Print hardcopy with @kbd{M-x print-region} (@pxref{Printing}).
@item
Evaluate it as Lisp code with @kbd{M-x eval-region} (@pxref{Lisp Eval}).
@item
Undo changes within it using @kbd{C-u C-x u} (@pxref{Undo}).
@end itemize
Most commands that operate on the text in the region have the word
@code{region} in their names.
@node Marking Objects
@section Commands to Mark Textual Objects
@cindex marking sections of text
Here are the commands for placing point and the mark around a textual
object such as a word, list, paragraph or page.
@table @kbd
@item M-@@
Set mark after end of next word (@code{mark-word}). This command and
the following one do not move point.
@item C-M-@@
Set mark after end of following balanced expression (@code{mark-sexp}).
@item M-h
Put region around current paragraph (@code{mark-paragraph}).
@item C-M-h
Put region around current defun (@code{mark-defun}).
@item C-x h
Put region around the entire buffer (@code{mark-whole-buffer}).
@item C-x C-p
Put region around current page (@code{mark-page}).
@end table
@kbd{M-@@} (@code{mark-word}) puts the mark at the end of the next
word, while @kbd{C-M-@@} (@code{mark-sexp}) puts it at the end of the
next balanced expression (@pxref{Expressions}). These commands handle
arguments just like @kbd{M-f} and @kbd{C-M-f}. Repeating these
commands extends the region. For example, you can type either
@kbd{C-u 2 M-@@} or @kbd{M-@@ M-@@} to mark the next two words. These
commands also extend the region in Transient Mark mode, regardless of
the last command.
@kindex C-x h
@findex mark-whole-buffer
Other commands set both point and mark, to delimit an object in the
buffer. For example, @kbd{M-h} (@code{mark-paragraph}) moves point to
the beginning of the paragraph that surrounds or follows point, and
puts the mark at the end of that paragraph (@pxref{Paragraphs}). It
prepares the region so you can indent, case-convert, or kill a whole
paragraph. With a prefix argument, if the argument's value is positive,
@kbd{M-h} marks that many paragraphs starting with the one surrounding
point. If the prefix argument is @minus{}@var{n}, @kbd{M-h} also
marks @var{n} paragraphs, running back form the one surrounding point.
In that last case, point moves forward to the end of that paragraph,
and the mark goes at the start of the region. Repeating the @kbd{M-h}
command extends the region to subsequent paragraphs.
@kbd{C-M-h} (@code{mark-defun}) similarly puts point before, and the
mark after, the current (or following) major top-level definition, or
defun (@pxref{Moving by Defuns}). Repeating @kbd{C-M-h} extends
the region to subsequent defuns.
@kbd{C-x C-p} (@code{mark-page}) puts point before the current page,
and mark at the end (@pxref{Pages}). The mark goes after the
terminating page delimiter (to include it in the region), while point
goes after the preceding page delimiter (to exclude it). A numeric
argument specifies a later page (if positive) or an earlier page (if
negative) instead of the current page.
Finally, @kbd{C-x h} (@code{mark-whole-buffer}) sets up the entire
buffer as the region, by putting point at the beginning and the mark at
the end. (In some programs this is called ``select all.'')
In Transient Mark mode, all of these commands activate the mark.
@node Mark Ring
@section The Mark Ring
@kindex C-u C-SPC
@cindex mark ring
@kindex C-u C-@@
Aside from delimiting the region, the mark is also useful for
remembering a spot that you may want to go back to. To make this
feature more useful, each buffer remembers 16 previous locations of the
mark, in the @dfn{mark ring}. Commands that set the mark also push the
old mark onto this ring. To return to a marked location, use @kbd{C-u
C-@key{SPC}} (or @kbd{C-u C-@@}); this is the command
@code{set-mark-command} given a numeric argument. It moves point to
where the mark was, and restores the mark from the ring of former
marks.
@vindex set-mark-command-repeat-pop
If you set @code{set-mark-command-repeat-pop} to non-@code{nil},
then when you repeat the character @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} after typing
@kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}}, each repetition moves point to a previous mark
position from the ring. The mark positions you move through in this
way are not lost; they go to the end of the ring.
Each buffer has its own mark ring. All editing commands use the current
buffer's mark ring. In particular, @kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}} always stays in
the same buffer.
Many commands that can move long distances, such as @kbd{M-<}
(@code{beginning-of-buffer}), start by setting the mark and saving the
old mark on the mark ring. This is to make it easier for you to move
back later. Searches set the mark if they move point. However, in
Transient Mark mode, these commands do not set the mark when the mark
is already active. You can tell when a command sets the mark because
it displays @samp{Mark set} in the echo area.
If you want to move back to the same place over and over, the mark
ring may not be convenient enough. If so, you can record the position
in a register for later retrieval (@pxref{RegPos,, Saving Positions in
Registers}).
@vindex mark-ring-max
The variable @code{mark-ring-max} specifies the maximum number of
entries to keep in the mark ring. If that many entries exist and
another one is pushed, the earliest one in the list is discarded. Repeating
@kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}} cycles through the positions currently in the
ring.
@vindex mark-ring
The variable @code{mark-ring} holds the mark ring itself, as a list of
marker objects, with the most recent first. This variable is local in
every buffer.
@node Global Mark Ring
@section The Global Mark Ring
@cindex global mark ring
In addition to the ordinary mark ring that belongs to each buffer,
Emacs has a single @dfn{global mark ring}. It records a sequence of
buffers in which you have recently set the mark, so you can go back
to those buffers.
Setting the mark always makes an entry on the current buffer's mark
ring. If you have switched buffers since the previous mark setting, the
new mark position makes an entry on the global mark ring also. The
result is that the global mark ring records a sequence of buffers that
you have been in, and, for each buffer, a place where you set the mark.
@kindex C-x C-@key{SPC}
@findex pop-global-mark
The command @kbd{C-x C-@key{SPC}} (@code{pop-global-mark}) jumps to
the buffer and position of the latest entry in the global ring. It also
rotates the ring, so that successive uses of @kbd{C-x C-@key{SPC}} take
you to earlier and earlier buffers.
@ignore
arch-tag: f35e4d82-911b-4cfc-a3d7-3c87b2abba20
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Minibuffer, M-x, Basic, Top
@chapter The Minibuffer
@cindex minibuffer
The @dfn{minibuffer} is where Emacs commands read complicated
arguments (anything more a single number). We call it the
``minibuffer'' because it's a special-purpose buffer with a small
amount of screen space. Minibuffer arguments can be file names,
buffer names, Lisp function names, Emacs command names, Lisp
expressions, and many other things---whatever the command wants to
read. You can use the usual Emacs editing commands in the minibuffer
to edit the argument text.
@cindex prompt
When the minibuffer is in use, it appears in the echo area, with a
cursor. The minibuffer display starts with a @dfn{prompt} in a
distinct color; it says what kind of input is expected and how it will
be used. Often the prompt is derived from the name of the command
that is reading the argument. The prompt normally ends with a colon.
@cindex default argument
Sometimes a @dfn{default argument} appears in the prompt, inside
parentheses before the colon. The default will be used as the
argument value if you just type @key{RET}. For example, commands that
read buffer names show a buffer name as the default. You can type
@key{RET} to operate on that default buffer.
The simplest way to enter a minibuffer argument is to type the text,
then @key{RET} to exit the minibuffer. You can cancel the minibuffer,
and the command that wants the argument, by typing @kbd{C-g}.
Since the minibuffer appears in the echo area, it can conflict with
other uses of the echo area. Here is how Emacs handles such
conflicts:
@itemize @bullet
@item
An error occurs while the minibuffer is active.
The error message hides the minibuffer for a few seconds, or until you
type something. Then the minibuffer comes back.
@item
A command such as @kbd{C-x =} needs to display a message in the echo
area.
The message hides the minibuffer for a few seconds, or until you type
something. Then the minibuffer comes back.
@item
Keystrokes don't echo while the minibuffer is in use.
@end itemize
@menu
* File: Minibuffer File. Entering file names with the minibuffer.
* Edit: Minibuffer Edit. How to edit in the minibuffer.
* Completion:: An abbreviation facility for minibuffer input.
* Minibuffer History:: Reusing recent minibuffer arguments.
* Repetition:: Re-executing commands that used the minibuffer.
@end menu
@node Minibuffer File
@section Minibuffers for File Names
When you use the minibuffer to enter a file name, it starts out with
some initial text---the @dfn{default directory}, ending in a slash.
The file you specify will be in this directory unless you alter or
replace it.
@c Separate paragraph to clean up ugly page break--rms
@need 1500
For example, if the minibuffer starts out with these contents:
@example
Find File: /u2/emacs/src/
@end example
@noindent
(where @samp{Find File:@: } is the prompt), and you type
@kbd{buffer.c} as input, that specifies the file
@file{/u2/emacs/src/buffer.c}. You can specify the parent directory
by adding @file{..}; thus, if you type @kbd{../lisp/simple.el}, you
will get @file{/u2/emacs/lisp/simple.el}. Alternatively, you can use
@kbd{M-@key{DEL}} to kill the directory names you don't want
(@pxref{Words}).
You can kill the entire default with @kbd{C-a C-k}, but there's no
need to do that. It's easier to ignore the default, and enter an
absolute file name starting with a slash or a tilde after the default
directory. For example, to specify @file{/etc/termcap}, just type
that name:
@example
Find File: /u2/emacs/src//etc/termcap
@end example
@noindent
@cindex // in file name
@cindex double slash in file name
@cindex slashes repeated in file name
@findex file-name-shadow-mode
GNU Emacs interprets a double slash (which is not normally useful in
file names) as, ``ignore everything before the second slash in the
pair.'' In the example above. @samp{/u2/emacs/src/} is ignored, so
you get @file{/etc/termcap}. The ignored part of the file name is
dimmed if the terminal allows it; to disable this dimming, turn off
File Name Shadow mode (a minor mode) with the command
@kbd{M-x file-name-shadow-mode}.
If the variable @code{insert-default-directory} is @code{nil}, the
default directory is never inserted in the minibuffer---so the
minibuffer starts out empty. Nonetheless, relative file name
arguments are still interpreted based on the same default directory.
@node Minibuffer Edit
@section Editing in the Minibuffer
The minibuffer is an Emacs buffer (albeit a peculiar one), and the
usual Emacs commands are available for editing the argument text.
Since @key{RET} in the minibuffer is defined to exit the minibuffer,
you can't use it to insert a newline in the minibuffer. To do that,
type @kbd{C-o} or @kbd{C-q C-j}. (The newline character is really the
@acronym{ASCII} character control-J.)
The minibuffer has its own window, which normally has space in the
frame at all times, but it only acts like an Emacs window when the
minibuffer is active. When active, this window is much like any other
Emacs window; for instance, you can switch to another window (with
@kbd{C-x o}), edit text there, then return to the minibuffer window to
finish the argument. You can even kill text in another window, return
to the minibuffer window, and then yank the text into the argument.
@xref{Windows}.
@cindex height of minibuffer
@cindex size of minibuffer
@cindex growing minibuffer
@cindex resizing minibuffer
There are some restrictions on the minibuffer window, however: you
cannot kill it, or split it, or switch buffers in it---the minibuffer
and its window are permanently attached.
@vindex resize-mini-windows
The minibuffer window expands vertically as necessary to hold the
text that you put in the minibuffer. If @code{resize-mini-windows} is
@code{t} (the default), the window always resizes as needed by its
contents. If its value is the symbol @code{grow-only}, the window
grows automatically as needed, but shrinks (back to the normal size)
only when the minibuffer becomes inactive. If its value is
@code{nil}, you have to adjust the height yourself.
@vindex max-mini-window-height
The variable @code{max-mini-window-height} controls the maximum
height for resizing the minibuffer window: a floating-point number
specifies a fraction of the frame's height; an integer specifies the
maximum number of lines; @code{nil} means do not resize the minibuffer
window automatically. The default value is 0.25.
The @kbd{C-M-v} command in the minibuffer scrolls the help text from
commands that display help text of any sort in another window.
@kbd{M-@key{PAGEUP}} and @kbd{M-@key{PAGEDOWN}} also operate on that
help text. This is especially useful with long lists of possible
completions. @xref{Other Window}.
@vindex enable-recursive-minibuffers
Emacs normally disallows most commands that use the minibuffer while
the minibuffer is active. (Entering the minibuffer from the
minibuffer can be confusing.) To allow such commands in the
minibuffer, set the variable @code{enable-recursive-minibuffers} to
@code{t}.
@node Completion
@section Completion
@cindex completion
Some arguments allow @dfn{completion} to enter their value. This
means that after you type part of the argument, Emacs can fill in the
rest, or some of it, based on what you have typed so far.
When completion is available, certain keys---@key{TAB}, @key{RET},
and @key{SPC}---are rebound to complete the text in the minibuffer
before point into a longer string chosen from a set of @dfn{completion
alternatives} provided by the command that requested the argument.
(@key{SPC} does not do completion in reading file names, because it is
common to use spaces in file names on some systems.) @kbd{?} displays
a list of the possible completions at any time.
For example, @kbd{M-x} uses the minibuffer to read the name of a
command, so it provides a list of all Emacs command names for
completion candidates. The completion keys match the minibuffer text
against these candidates, find any additional name characters implied
by the text already present in the minibuffer, and add those
characters. This makes it possible to type @kbd{M-x ins @key{SPC} b
@key{RET}} instead of @kbd{M-x insert-buffer @key{RET}}, for example.
Case is significant in completion when it is significant in the
argument you are entering (buffer names, file names, command names,
for instance). Thus, @samp{fo} does not complete to @samp{Foo}.
Completion ignores case distinctions for certain arguments in which
case does not matter.
Completion acts only on the text before point. If there is text in
the minibuffer after point---i.e., if you move point backward after
typing some text into the minibuffer---it remains unchanged.
@menu
* Example: Completion Example. Examples of using completion.
* Commands: Completion Commands. A list of completion commands.
* Strict Completion:: Different types of completion.
* Options: Completion Options. Options for completion.
@end menu
@node Completion Example
@subsection Completion Example
@kindex TAB @r{(completion)}
A concrete example may help here. If you type @kbd{M-x au
@key{TAB}}, the @key{TAB} looks for alternatives (in this case,
command names) that start with @samp{au}. There are several,
including @code{auto-fill-mode} and @code{auto-save-mode}, but they
all begin with @code{auto-}, so the @samp{au} in the minibuffer
completes to @samp{auto-}.
If you type @key{TAB} again immediately, it cannot determine the
next character; it could be any of @samp{cfilrs}. So it does not add
any characters; instead, @key{TAB} displays a list of all possible
completions in another window.
Now type @kbd{f @key{TAB}}. This @key{TAB} sees @samp{auto-f}. The
only command name starting with that is @code{auto-fill-mode}, so
completion fills in the rest of that. You have been able to enter
@samp{auto-fill-mode} by typing just @kbd{au @key{TAB} f @key{TAB}}.
@node Completion Commands
@subsection Completion Commands
Here is a list of the completion commands defined in the minibuffer
when completion is allowed.
@table @kbd
@item @key{TAB}
@findex minibuffer-complete
Complete the text before point in the minibuffer as much as possible
(@code{minibuffer-complete}).
@item @key{SPC}
Complete up to one word from the minibuffer text before point
(@code{minibuffer-complete-word}). @key{SPC} for completion is not
available when entering a file name, since file names often include
spaces.
@item @key{RET}
Submit the text in the minibuffer as the argument, possibly completing
first as described
@iftex
in the next subsection (@code{minibuffer-complete-and-exit}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
in the next node (@code{minibuffer-complete-and-exit}). @xref{Strict
Completion}.
@end ifnottex
@item ?
Display a list of possible completions of the text before point
(@code{minibuffer-completion-help}).
@end table
@kindex SPC
@findex minibuffer-complete-word
@key{SPC} completes like @key{TAB}, but only up to the next hyphen
or space. If you have @samp{auto-f} in the minibuffer and type
@key{SPC}, it finds that the completion is @samp{auto-fill-mode}, but
it only inserts @samp{ill-}, giving @samp{auto-fill-}. Another
@key{SPC} at this point completes all the way to
@samp{auto-fill-mode}. The command that implements this behavior is
called @code{minibuffer-complete-word}.
When you display a list of possible completions, you can choose
one from it:
@table @kbd
@findex mouse-choose-completion
@item Mouse-1
@itemx Mouse-2
Clicking mouse button 1 or 2 on a completion possibility chooses that
completion (@code{mouse-choose-completion}). You must click in the
list of completions, not in the minibuffer.
@findex switch-to-completions
@item @key{PRIOR}
@itemx M-v
Typing @key{PRIOR} or @key{PAGE-UP}, or @kbd{M-v}, while in the
minibuffer, selects the window showing the completion list buffer
(@code{switch-to-completions}). This paves the way for using the
commands below. (Selecting that window in other ways has the same
effect.)
@findex choose-completion
@item @key{RET}
Typing @key{RET} @emph{in the completion list buffer} chooses the
completion that point is in or next to (@code{choose-completion}). To
use this command, you must first switch to the completion list window.
@findex next-completion
@item @key{RIGHT}
Typing the right-arrow key @key{RIGHT} @emph{in the completion list
buffer} moves point to the following completion possibility
(@code{next-completion}).
@findex previous-completion
@item @key{LEFT}
Typing the left-arrow key @key{LEFT} @emph{in the completion list
buffer} moves point to the previous completion possibility
(@code{previous-completion}).
@end table
@node Strict Completion
@subsection Strict Completion
There are three different ways that @key{RET} can do completion,
depending on how the argument will be used.
@itemize @bullet
@item
@dfn{Strict} completion accepts only known completion candidates. For
example, when @kbd{C-x k} reads the name of a buffer to kill, only the
name of an existing buffer makes sense. In strict completion,
@key{RET} refuses to exit if the text in the minibuffer does not
complete to an exact match.
@item
@dfn{Cautious} completion is similar to strict completion, except that
@key{RET} exits only if the text is an already exact match.
Otherwise, @key{RET} does not exit, but it does complete the text. If
that completes to an exact match, a second @key{RET} will exit.
Cautious completion is used for reading file names for files that must
already exist, for example.
@item
@dfn{Permissive} completion allows any input; the completion
candidates are just suggestions. For example, when @kbd{C-x C-f}
reads the name of a file to visit, any file name is allowed, including
nonexistent file (in case you want to create a file). In permissive
completion, @key{RET} does not complete, it just submits the argument
as you have entered it.
@end itemize
The completion commands display a list of all possible completions
whenever they can't determine even one more character by completion.
Also, typing @kbd{?} explicitly requests such a list. You can scroll
the list with @kbd{C-M-v} (@pxref{Other Window}).
@node Completion Options
@subsection Completion Options
@vindex completion-ignored-extensions
@cindex ignored file names, in completion
When completing file names, certain file names are usually ignored.
The variable @code{completion-ignored-extensions} contains a list of
strings; a file name ending in any of those strings is ignored as a
completion candidate. The standard value of this variable has several
elements including @code{".o"}, @code{".elc"}, @code{".dvi"} and
@code{"~"}. The effect is that, for example, @samp{foo} can complete
to @samp{foo.c} even though @samp{foo.o} exists as well. However, if
@emph{all} the possible completions end in ``ignored'' strings, then
they are not ignored. Displaying a list of possible completions
disregards @code{completion-ignored-extensions}; it shows them all.
If an element of @code{completion-ignored-extensions} ends in a
slash (@file{/}), it's a subdirectory name; then that directory and
its contents are ignored. Elements of
@code{completion-ignored-extensions} which do not end in a slash are
ordinary file names, and do not apply to names of directories.
@vindex completion-auto-help
If @code{completion-auto-help} is set to @code{nil}, the completion
commands never display a list of possibilities; you must type @kbd{?}
to display the list.
@cindex Partial Completion mode
@vindex partial-completion-mode
@findex partial-completion-mode
Partial Completion mode implements a more powerful kind of
completion that can complete multiple words in parallel. For example,
it can complete the command name abbreviation @code{p-b} into
@code{print-buffer} if no other command starts with two words whose
initials are @samp{p} and @samp{b}.
To enable this mode, use @kbd{M-x partial-completion-mode}, or
customize the variable @code{partial-completion-mode}. This mode
binds special partial completion commands to @key{TAB}, @key{SPC},
@key{RET}, and @kbd{?} in the minibuffer. The usual completion
commands are available on @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} (or @kbd{C-M-i}),
@kbd{M-@key{SPC}}, @kbd{M-@key{RET}} and @kbd{M-?}.
Partial completion of directories in file names uses @samp{*} to
indicate the places for completion; thus, @file{/u*/b*/f*} might
complete to @file{/usr/bin/foo}. For remote files, partial completion
enables completion of methods, user names and host names.
@xref{Remote Files}.
@vindex PC-include-file-path
@vindex PC-disable-includes
Partial Completion mode also extends @code{find-file} so that
@samp{<@var{include}>} looks for the file named @var{include} in the
directories in the path @code{PC-include-file-path}. If you set
@code{PC-disable-includes} to non-@code{nil}, this feature is
disabled.
@cindex Icomplete mode
@findex icomplete-mode
Icomplete mode presents a constantly-updated display that tells you
what completions are available for the text you've entered so far. The
command to enable or disable this minor mode is @kbd{M-x
icomplete-mode}.
@node Minibuffer History
@section Minibuffer History
@cindex minibuffer history
@cindex history of minibuffer input
Every argument that you enter with the minibuffer is saved on a
@dfn{minibuffer history list} so you can easily use it again later.
Special commands fetch the text of an earlier argument into the
minibuffer, replacing the old minibuffer contents. You can think of
them as moving through the history of previous arguments.
@table @kbd
@item @key{UP}
@itemx M-p
Move to the previous item in the minibuffer history, an earlier argument
(@code{previous-history-element}).
@item @key{DOWN}
@itemx M-n
Move to the next item in the minibuffer history
(@code{next-history-element}).
@item M-r @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Move to an earlier item in the minibuffer history that
matches @var{regexp} (@code{previous-matching-history-element}).
@item M-s @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Move to a later item in the minibuffer history that matches
@var{regexp} (@code{next-matching-history-element}).
@end table
@kindex M-p @r{(minibuffer history)}
@kindex M-n @r{(minibuffer history)}
@findex next-history-element
@findex previous-history-element
To move through the minibuffer history list one item at a time, use
@kbd{M-p} or up-arrow (@code{previous-history-element}) to fetch the
next earlier minibuffer input, and use @kbd{M-n} or down-arrow
(@code{next-history-element}) to fetch the next later input. These
commands don't move the cursor, they pull different saved strings into
the minibuffer. But you can think of them as ``moving'' through the
history list.
The input that you fetch from the history entirely replaces the
contents of the minibuffer. To use it again unchanged, just type
@key{RET}. You can also edit the text before you reuse it; this does
not change the history element that you ``moved'' to, but your new
argument does go at the end of the history list in its own right.
For many minibuffer arguments there is a ``default'' value. You can
insert the default value into the minibuffer as text by using
@kbd{M-n}. You can think of this as moving ``into the future'' in the
history.
@findex previous-matching-history-element
@findex next-matching-history-element
@kindex M-r @r{(minibuffer history)}
@kindex M-s @r{(minibuffer history)}
There are also commands to search forward or backward through the
history; they search for history elements that match a regular
expression. @kbd{M-r} (@code{previous-matching-history-element})
searches older elements in the history, while @kbd{M-s}
(@code{next-matching-history-element}) searches newer elements. These
commands are unusual; they use the minibuffer to read the regular
expression even though they are invoked from the minibuffer. As with
incremental searching, an upper-case letter in the regular expression
makes the search case-sensitive (@pxref{Search Case}).
@ignore
We may change the precise way these commands read their arguments.
Perhaps they will search for a match for the string given so far in the
minibuffer; perhaps they will search for a literal match rather than a
regular expression match; perhaps they will only accept matches at the
beginning of a history element; perhaps they will read the string to
search for incrementally like @kbd{C-s}. To find out what interface is
actually available, type @kbd{C-h f previous-matching-history-element}.
@end ignore
All uses of the minibuffer record your input on a history list, but
there are separate history lists for different kinds of arguments.
For example, there is a list for file names, used by all the commands
that read file names. (As a special feature, this history list
records the absolute file name, even if the name you entered was not
absolute.)
There are several other specific history lists, including one for
buffer names, one for arguments of commands like @code{query-replace},
one used by @kbd{M-x} for command names, and one used by
@code{compile} for compilation commands. Finally, there is one
``miscellaneous'' history list that most minibuffer arguments use.
@vindex history-length
The variable @code{history-length} specifies the maximum length of a
minibuffer history list; adding a new element deletes the oldest
element if the list gets too long. If the value of
@code{history-length} is @code{t}, though, there is no maximum length.
@vindex history-delete-duplicates
The variable @code{history-delete-duplicates} specifies whether to
delete duplicates in history. If it is @code{t}, adding a new element
deletes from the list all other elements that are equal to it.
@node Repetition
@section Repeating Minibuffer Commands
@cindex command history
@cindex history of commands
Every command that uses the minibuffer once is recorded on a special
history list, the @dfn{command history}, together with the values of
its arguments, so that you can repeat the entire command. In
particular, every use of @kbd{M-x} is recorded there, since @kbd{M-x}
uses the minibuffer to read the command name.
@findex list-command-history
@table @kbd
@item C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}
Re-execute a recent minibuffer command from the command history
(@code{repeat-complex-command}).
@item M-x list-command-history
Display the entire command history, showing all the commands
@kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}} can repeat, most recent first.
@end table
@kindex C-x ESC ESC
@findex repeat-complex-command
@kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}} is used to re-execute a recent command
that used the minibuffer. With no argument, it repeats the last such
command. A numeric argument specifies which command to repeat; 1
means the last one, 2 the previous, and so on.
@kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}} works by turning the previous command
into a Lisp expression and then entering a minibuffer initialized with
the text for that expression. Even if you don't understand Lisp
syntax, it will probably be obvious which command is displayed for
repetition. If you type just @key{RET}, that repeats the command
unchanged. You can also change the command by editing the Lisp
expression before you execute it. The repeated command is added to
the front of the command history unless it is identical to the most
recently item.
Once inside the minibuffer for @kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}}, you can
use the minibuffer history commands (@kbd{M-p}, @kbd{M-n}, @kbd{M-r},
@kbd{M-s}; @pxref{Minibuffer History}) to move through the history list
of saved entire commands. After finding the desired previous command,
you can edit its expression as usual and then repeat it by typing
@key{RET}.
@vindex isearch-resume-in-command-history
Incremental search does not, strictly speaking, use the minibuffer.
Therefore, although it behaves like a complex command, it normally
does not appear in the history list for @kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}}.
You can make incremental search commands appear in the history by
setting @code{isearch-resume-in-command-history} to a non-@code{nil}
value. @xref{Incremental Search}.
@vindex command-history
The list of previous minibuffer-using commands is stored as a Lisp
list in the variable @code{command-history}. Each element is a Lisp
expression which describes one command and its arguments. Lisp programs
can re-execute a command by calling @code{eval} with the
@code{command-history} element.
@ignore
arch-tag: ba913cfd-b70e-400f-b663-22b2c309227f
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node MS-DOS
@section Emacs and MS-DOS
@cindex MS-DOG
@cindex MS-DOS peculiarities
This section briefly describes the peculiarities of using Emacs on
the MS-DOS ``operating system'' (also known as ``MS-DOG'').
@iftex
Information about Emacs and Microsoft's current operating system
Windows (also known as ``Losedows) is in the main Emacs manual
(@pxref{Microsoft Systems,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
Information about peculiarities common to MS-DOS and Microsoft's
current operating systems Windows (also known as ``Losedows) is in
@ref{Microsoft Windows}.
@end ifnottex
If you build Emacs for MS-DOS, the binary will also run on Windows
3.X, Windows NT, Windows 9X/ME, Windows 2000/XP, or OS/2 as a DOS
application; all of this chapter applies for all of those systems, if
you use an Emacs that was built for MS-DOS.
@iftex
@xref{Text and Binary,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}, for information
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Text and Binary}, for information
@end ifnottex
about Emacs' special handling of text files under MS-DOS (and Windows).
@menu
* Keyboard: MS-DOS Keyboard. Keyboard conventions on MS-DOS.
* Mouse: MS-DOS Mouse. Mouse conventions on MS-DOS.
* Display: MS-DOS Display. Fonts, frames and display size on MS-DOS.
* Files: MS-DOS File Names. File name conventions on MS-DOS.
* Printing: MS-DOS Printing. Printing specifics on MS-DOS.
* I18N: MS-DOS and MULE. Support for internationalization on MS-DOS.
* Processes: MS-DOS Processes. Running subprocesses on MS-DOS.
@end menu
@node MS-DOS Keyboard
@subsection Keyboard Usage on MS-DOS
@kindex DEL @r{(MS-DOS)}
@kindex BS @r{(MS-DOS)}
The key that is called @key{DEL} in Emacs (because that's how it is
designated on most workstations) is known as @key{BS} (backspace) on a
PC. That is why the PC-specific terminal initialization remaps the
@key{BS} key to act as @key{DEL}; the @key{DELETE} key is remapped to act
as @kbd{C-d} for the same reasons.
@kindex C-g @r{(MS-DOS)}
@kindex C-BREAK @r{(MS-DOS)}
@cindex quitting on MS-DOS
Emacs built for MS-DOS recognizes @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} as a quit
character, just like @kbd{C-g}. This is because Emacs cannot detect
that you have typed @kbd{C-g} until it is ready for more input. As a
consequence, you cannot use @kbd{C-g} to stop a running command
@iftex
(@pxref{Quitting,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Quitting}).
@end ifnottex
By contrast, @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} @emph{is} detected as soon as you
type it (as @kbd{C-g} is on other systems), so it can be used to stop
a running command and for emergency escape
@iftex
(@pxref{Emergency Escape,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Emergency Escape}).
@end ifnottex
@cindex Meta (under MS-DOS)
@cindex Hyper (under MS-DOS)
@cindex Super (under MS-DOS)
@vindex dos-super-key
@vindex dos-hyper-key
The PC keyboard maps use the left @key{ALT} key as the @key{META} key.
You have two choices for emulating the @key{SUPER} and @key{HYPER} keys:
choose either the right @key{CTRL} key or the right @key{ALT} key by
setting the variables @code{dos-hyper-key} and @code{dos-super-key} to 1
or 2 respectively. If neither @code{dos-super-key} nor
@code{dos-hyper-key} is 1, then by default the right @key{ALT} key is
also mapped to the @key{META} key. However, if the MS-DOS international
keyboard support program @file{KEYB.COM} is installed, Emacs will
@emph{not} map the right @key{ALT} to @key{META}, since it is used for
accessing characters like @kbd{~} and @kbd{@@} on non-US keyboard
layouts; in this case, you may only use the left @key{ALT} as @key{META}
key.
@kindex C-j @r{(MS-DOS)}
@vindex dos-keypad-mode
The variable @code{dos-keypad-mode} is a flag variable that controls
what key codes are returned by keys in the numeric keypad. You can also
define the keypad @key{ENTER} key to act like @kbd{C-j}, by putting the
following line into your @file{_emacs} file:
@smallexample
;; @r{Make the @key{ENTER} key from the numeric keypad act as @kbd{C-j}.}
(define-key function-key-map [kp-enter] [?\C-j])
@end smallexample
@node MS-DOS Mouse
@subsection Mouse Usage on MS-DOS
@cindex mouse support under MS-DOS
Emacs on MS-DOS supports a mouse (on the default terminal only).
The mouse commands work as documented, including those that use menus
and the menu bar
@iftex
(@pxref{Menu Bar,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Menu Bar}).
@end ifnottex
Scroll bars don't work in MS-DOS Emacs. PC mice usually have only
two buttons; these act as @kbd{Mouse-1} and @kbd{Mouse-2}, but if you
press both of them together, that has the effect of @kbd{Mouse-3}. If
the mouse does have 3 buttons, Emacs detects that at startup, and all
the 3 buttons function normally, as on X.
Help strings for menu-bar and pop-up menus are displayed in the echo
area when the mouse pointer moves across the menu items. Highlighting
of mouse-sensitive text
@iftex
(@pxref{Mouse References,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Mouse References})
@end ifnottex
is also supported.
@cindex mouse, set number of buttons
@findex msdos-set-mouse-buttons
Some versions of mouse drivers don't report the number of mouse
buttons correctly. For example, mice with a wheel report that they
have 3 buttons, but only 2 of them are passed to Emacs; the clicks on
the wheel, which serves as the middle button, are not passed. In
these cases, you can use the @kbd{M-x msdos-set-mouse-buttons} command
to tell Emacs how many mouse buttons to expect. You could make such a
setting permanent by adding this fragment to your @file{_emacs} init
file:
@example
;; @r{Treat the mouse like a 2-button mouse.}
(msdos-set-mouse-buttons 2)
@end example
@cindex Windows clipboard support
Emacs built for MS-DOS supports clipboard operations when it runs on
Windows. Commands that put text on the kill ring, or yank text from
the ring, check the Windows clipboard first, just as Emacs does on the
X Window System
@iftex
(@pxref{Mouse Commands,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Mouse Commands}).
@end ifnottex
Only the primary selection and the cut buffer are supported by MS-DOS
Emacs on Windows; the secondary selection always appears as empty.
Due to the way clipboard access is implemented by Windows, the
length of text you can put into the clipboard is limited by the amount
of free DOS memory that is available to Emacs. Usually, up to 620KB of
text can be put into the clipboard, but this limit depends on the system
configuration and is lower if you run Emacs as a subprocess of
another program. If the killed text does not fit, Emacs outputs a
message saying so, and does not put the text into the clipboard.
Null characters also cannot be put into the Windows clipboard. If the
killed text includes null characters, Emacs does not put such text into
the clipboard, and displays in the echo area a message to that effect.
@vindex dos-display-scancodes
The variable @code{dos-display-scancodes}, when non-@code{nil},
directs Emacs to display the @acronym{ASCII} value and the keyboard scan code of
each keystroke; this feature serves as a complement to the
@code{view-lossage} command, for debugging.
@node MS-DOS Display
@subsection Display on MS-DOS
@cindex faces under MS-DOS
@cindex fonts, emulating under MS-DOS
Display on MS-DOS cannot use font variants, like bold or italic, but
it does support multiple faces, each of which can specify a foreground
and a background color. Therefore, you can get the full functionality
of Emacs packages that use fonts (such as @code{font-lock}, Enriched
Text mode, and others) by defining the relevant faces to use different
colors. Use the @code{list-colors-display} command
@iftex
(@pxref{Frame Parameters,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Frame Parameters})
@end ifnottex
and the @code{list-faces-display} command
@iftex
(@pxref{Faces,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Faces})
@end ifnottex
to see what colors and faces are available and what they look like.
@xref{MS-DOS and MULE}, later in this chapter, for information on
how Emacs displays glyphs and characters that aren't supported by the
native font built into the DOS display.
@cindex cursor shape on MS-DOS
When Emacs starts, it changes the cursor shape to a solid box. This
is for compatibility with other systems, where the box cursor is the
default in Emacs. This default shape can be changed to a bar by
specifying the @code{cursor-type} parameter in the variable
@code{default-frame-alist}
@iftex
(@pxref{Creating Frames,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Creating Frames}).
@end ifnottex
The MS-DOS terminal doesn't support a vertical-bar cursor,
so the bar cursor is horizontal, and the @code{@var{width}} parameter,
if specified by the frame parameters, actually determines its height.
For this reason, the @code{bar} and @code{hbar} cursor types produce
the same effect on MS-DOS. As an extension, the bar cursor
specification can include the starting scan line of the cursor as well
as its width, like this:
@example
'(cursor-type bar @var{width} . @var{start})
@end example
@noindent
In addition, if the @var{width} parameter is negative, the cursor bar
begins at the top of the character cell.
@cindex frames on MS-DOS
The MS-DOS terminal can only display a single frame at a time. The
Emacs frame facilities work on MS-DOS much as they do on text-only
terminals
@iftex
(@pxref{Frames,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Frames}).
@end ifnottex
When you run Emacs from a DOS window on MS-Windows, you can make the
visible frame smaller than the full screen, but Emacs still cannot
display more than a single frame at a time.
@cindex frame size under MS-DOS
@findex mode4350
@findex mode25
The @code{mode4350} command switches the display to 43 or 50
lines, depending on your hardware; the @code{mode25} command switches
to the default 80x25 screen size.
By default, Emacs only knows how to set screen sizes of 80 columns by
25, 28, 35, 40, 43 or 50 rows. However, if your video adapter has
special video modes that will switch the display to other sizes, you can
have Emacs support those too. When you ask Emacs to switch the frame to
@var{n} rows by @var{m} columns dimensions, it checks if there is a
variable called @code{screen-dimensions-@var{n}x@var{m}}, and if so,
uses its value (which must be an integer) as the video mode to switch
to. (Emacs switches to that video mode by calling the BIOS @code{Set
Video Mode} function with the value of
@code{screen-dimensions-@var{n}x@var{m}} in the @code{AL} register.)
For example, suppose your adapter will switch to 66x80 dimensions when
put into video mode 85. Then you can make Emacs support this screen
size by putting the following into your @file{_emacs} file:
@example
(setq screen-dimensions-66x80 85)
@end example
Since Emacs on MS-DOS can only set the frame size to specific
supported dimensions, it cannot honor every possible frame resizing
request. When an unsupported size is requested, Emacs chooses the next
larger supported size beyond the specified size. For example, if you
ask for 36x80 frame, you will get 40x80 instead.
The variables @code{screen-dimensions-@var{n}x@var{m}} are used only
when they exactly match the specified size; the search for the next
larger supported size ignores them. In the above example, even if your
VGA supports 38x80 dimensions and you define a variable
@code{screen-dimensions-38x80} with a suitable value, you will still get
40x80 screen when you ask for a 36x80 frame. If you want to get the
38x80 size in this case, you can do it by setting the variable named
@code{screen-dimensions-36x80} with the same video mode value as
@code{screen-dimensions-38x80}.
Changing frame dimensions on MS-DOS has the effect of changing all the
other frames to the new dimensions.
@node MS-DOS File Names
@subsection File Names on MS-DOS
@cindex file names under MS-DOS
@cindex init file, default name under MS-DOS
On MS-DOS, file names are case-insensitive and limited to eight
characters, plus optionally a period and three more characters. Emacs
knows enough about these limitations to handle file names that were
meant for other operating systems. For instance, leading dots
@samp{.} in file names are invalid in MS-DOS, so Emacs transparently
converts them to underscores @samp{_}; thus your default init file
@iftex
(@pxref{Init File,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Init File})
@end ifnottex
is called @file{_emacs} on MS-DOS. Excess characters before or after
the period are generally ignored by MS-DOS itself; thus, if you visit
the file @file{LongFileName.EvenLongerExtension}, you will silently
get @file{longfile.eve}, but Emacs will still display the long file
name on the mode line. Other than that, it's up to you to specify
file names which are valid under MS-DOS; the transparent conversion as
described above only works on file names built into Emacs.
@cindex backup file names on MS-DOS
The above restrictions on the file names on MS-DOS make it almost
impossible to construct the name of a backup file
@iftex
(@pxref{Backup Names,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Backup Names})
@end ifnottex
without losing some of the original file name characters. For
example, the name of a backup file for @file{docs.txt} is
@file{docs.tx~} even if single backup is used.
@cindex file names under Windows 95/NT
@cindex long file names in DOS box under Windows 95/NT
If you run Emacs as a DOS application under Windows 9X, Windows ME, or
Windows 2000/XP, you can turn on support for long file names. If you do
that, Emacs doesn't truncate file names or convert them to lower case;
instead, it uses the file names that you specify, verbatim. To enable
long file name support, set the environment variable @env{LFN} to
@samp{y} before starting Emacs. Unfortunately, Windows NT doesn't allow
DOS programs to access long file names, so Emacs built for MS-DOS will
only see their short 8+3 aliases.
@cindex @env{HOME} directory under MS-DOS
MS-DOS has no notion of home directory, so Emacs on MS-DOS pretends
that the directory where it is installed is the value of the @env{HOME}
environment variable. That is, if your Emacs binary,
@file{emacs.exe}, is in the directory @file{c:/utils/emacs/bin}, then
Emacs acts as if @env{HOME} were set to @samp{c:/utils/emacs}. In
particular, that is where Emacs looks for the init file @file{_emacs}.
With this in mind, you can use @samp{~} in file names as an alias for
the home directory, as you would on GNU or Unix. You can also set
@env{HOME} variable in the environment before starting Emacs; its
value will then override the above default behavior.
Emacs on MS-DOS handles the directory name @file{/dev} specially,
because of a feature in the emulator libraries of DJGPP that pretends
I/O devices have names in that directory. We recommend that you avoid
using an actual directory named @file{/dev} on any disk.
@node MS-DOS Printing
@subsection Printing and MS-DOS
Printing commands, such as @code{lpr-buffer}
@iftex
(@pxref{Printing,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}) and @code{ps-print-buffer}
(@pxref{PostScript,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Printing}) and @code{ps-print-buffer} (@pxref{PostScript})
@end ifnottex
can work on MS-DOS by sending the output to one of the printer ports,
if a Posix-style @code{lpr} program is unavailable. The same Emacs
variables control printing on all systems, but in some cases they have
different default values on MS-DOS.
@iftex
@xref{Windows Printing,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual},
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Windows Printing},
@end ifnottex
for details about setting up printing to a networked printer.
Some printers expect DOS codepage encoding of non-@acronym{ASCII} text, even
though they are connected to a Windows machine which uses a different
encoding for the same locale. For example, in the Latin-1 locale, DOS
uses codepage 850 whereas Windows uses codepage 1252. @xref{MS-DOS and
MULE}. When you print to such printers from Windows, you can use the
@kbd{C-x RET c} (@code{universal-coding-system-argument}) command before
@kbd{M-x lpr-buffer}; Emacs will then convert the text to the DOS
codepage that you specify. For example, @kbd{C-x RET c cp850-dos RET
M-x lpr-region RET} will print the region while converting it to the
codepage 850 encoding. You may need to create the @code{cp@var{nnn}}
coding system with @kbd{M-x codepage-setup}.
@vindex dos-printer
@vindex dos-ps-printer
For backwards compatibility, the value of @code{dos-printer}
(@code{dos-ps-printer}), if it has a value, overrides the value of
@code{printer-name} (@code{ps-printer-name}), on MS-DOS.
@node MS-DOS and MULE
@subsection International Support on MS-DOS
@cindex international support @r{(MS-DOS)}
Emacs on MS-DOS supports the same international character sets as it
does on GNU, Unix and other platforms
@iftex
(@pxref{International,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}),
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{International}),
@end ifnottex
including coding systems for converting between the different
character sets. However, due to incompatibilities between
MS-DOS/MS-Windows and other systems, there are several DOS-specific
aspects of this support that you should be aware of. This section
describes these aspects.
The description below is largely specific to the MS-DOS port of
Emacs, especially where it talks about practical implications for
Emacs users. For other operating systems, see the @file{code-pages.el}
package, which implements support for MS-DOS- and MS-Windows-specific
encodings for all platforms other than MS-DOS.
@table @kbd
@item M-x dos-codepage-setup
Set up Emacs display and coding systems as appropriate for the current
DOS codepage.
@item M-x codepage-setup
Create a coding system for a certain DOS codepage.
@end table
@cindex codepage, MS-DOS
@cindex DOS codepages
MS-DOS is designed to support one character set of 256 characters at
any given time, but gives you a variety of character sets to choose
from. The alternative character sets are known as @dfn{DOS codepages}.
Each codepage includes all 128 @acronym{ASCII} characters, but the other 128
characters (codes 128 through 255) vary from one codepage to another.
Each DOS codepage is identified by a 3-digit number, such as 850, 862,
etc.
In contrast to X, which lets you use several fonts at the same time,
MS-DOS normally doesn't allow use of several codepages in a single
session. MS-DOS was designed to load a single codepage at system
startup, and require you to reboot in order to change
it@footnote{Normally, one particular codepage is burnt into the
display memory, while other codepages can be installed by modifying
system configuration files, such as @file{CONFIG.SYS}, and rebooting.
While there is third-party software that allows changing the codepage
without rebooting, we describe here how a stock MS-DOS system
behaves.}. Much the same limitation applies when you run DOS
executables on other systems such as MS-Windows.
@cindex unibyte operation @r{(MS-DOS)}
If you invoke Emacs on MS-DOS with the @samp{--unibyte} option
@iftex
(@pxref{Initial Options,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}),
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Initial Options}),
@end ifnottex
Emacs does not perform any conversion of non-@acronym{ASCII}
characters. Instead, it reads and writes any non-@acronym{ASCII}
characters verbatim, and sends their 8-bit codes to the display
verbatim. Thus, unibyte Emacs on MS-DOS supports the current
codepage, whatever it may be, but cannot even represent any other
characters.
@vindex dos-codepage
For multibyte operation on MS-DOS, Emacs needs to know which
characters the chosen DOS codepage can display. So it queries the
system shortly after startup to get the chosen codepage number, and
stores the number in the variable @code{dos-codepage}. Some systems
return the default value 437 for the current codepage, even though the
actual codepage is different. (This typically happens when you use the
codepage built into the display hardware.) You can specify a different
codepage for Emacs to use by setting the variable @code{dos-codepage} in
your init file.
@cindex language environment, automatic selection on @r{MS-DOS}
Multibyte Emacs supports only certain DOS codepages: those which can
display Far-Eastern scripts, like the Japanese codepage 932, and those
that encode a single ISO 8859 character set.
The Far-Eastern codepages can directly display one of the MULE
character sets for these countries, so Emacs simply sets up to use the
appropriate terminal coding system that is supported by the codepage.
The special features described in the rest of this section mostly
pertain to codepages that encode ISO 8859 character sets.
For the codepages which correspond to one of the ISO character sets,
Emacs knows the character set name based on the codepage number. Emacs
automatically creates a coding system to support reading and writing
files that use the current codepage, and uses this coding system by
default. The name of this coding system is @code{cp@var{nnn}}, where
@var{nnn} is the codepage number.@footnote{The standard Emacs coding
systems for ISO 8859 are not quite right for the purpose, because
typically the DOS codepage does not match the standard ISO character
codes. For example, the letter @samp{@,{c}} (@samp{c} with cedilla) has
code 231 in the standard Latin-1 character set, but the corresponding
DOS codepage 850 uses code 135 for this glyph.}
@cindex mode line @r{(MS-DOS)}
All the @code{cp@var{nnn}} coding systems use the letter @samp{D}
(for ``DOS'') as their mode-line mnemonic. Since both the terminal
coding system and the default coding system for file I/O are set to
the proper @code{cp@var{nnn}} coding system at startup, it is normal
for the mode line on MS-DOS to begin with @samp{-DD\-}.
@iftex
@xref{Mode Line,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Mode Line}.
@end ifnottex
Far-Eastern DOS terminals do not use the @code{cp@var{nnn}} coding
systems, and thus their initial mode line looks like the Emacs
default.
Since the codepage number also indicates which script you are using,
Emacs automatically runs @code{set-language-environment} to select the
language environment for that script
@iftex
(@pxref{Language Environments,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Language Environments}).
@end ifnottex
If a buffer contains a character belonging to some other ISO 8859
character set, not the one that the chosen DOS codepage supports, Emacs
displays it using a sequence of @acronym{ASCII} characters. For example, if the
current codepage doesn't have a glyph for the letter @samp{@`o} (small
@samp{o} with a grave accent), it is displayed as @samp{@{`o@}}, where
the braces serve as a visual indication that this is a single character.
(This may look awkward for some non-Latin characters, such as those from
Greek or Hebrew alphabets, but it is still readable by a person who
knows the language.) Even though the character may occupy several
columns on the screen, it is really still just a single character, and
all Emacs commands treat it as one.
@cindex IBM graphics characters (MS-DOS)
@cindex box-drawing characters (MS-DOS)
@cindex line-drawing characters (MS-DOS)
Not all characters in DOS codepages correspond to ISO 8859
characters---some are used for other purposes, such as box-drawing
characters and other graphics. Emacs maps these characters to two
special character sets called @code{eight-bit-control} and
@code{eight-bit-graphic}, and displays them as their IBM glyphs.
However, you should be aware that other systems might display these
characters differently, so you should avoid them in text that might be
copied to a different operating system, or even to another DOS machine
that uses a different codepage.
@vindex dos-unsupported-character-glyph
Emacs supports many other characters sets aside from ISO 8859, but it
cannot display them on MS-DOS. So if one of these multibyte characters
appears in a buffer, Emacs on MS-DOS displays them as specified by the
@code{dos-unsupported-character-glyph} variable; by default, this glyph
is an empty triangle. Use the @kbd{C-u C-x =} command to display the
actual code and character set of such characters.
@iftex
@xref{Position Info,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Position Info}.
@end ifnottex
@findex codepage-setup
By default, Emacs defines a coding system to support the current
codepage. To define a coding system for some other codepage (e.g., to
visit a file written on a DOS machine in another country), use the
@kbd{M-x codepage-setup} command. It prompts for the 3-digit code of
the codepage, with completion, then creates the coding system for the
specified codepage. You can then use the new coding system to read and
write files, but you must specify it explicitly for the file command
when you want to use it
@iftex
(@pxref{Text Coding,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Text Coding}).
@end ifnottex
These coding systems are also useful for visiting a file encoded using
a DOS codepage, using Emacs running on some other operating system.
@cindex MS-Windows codepages
MS-Windows provides its own codepages, which are different from the
DOS codepages for the same locale. For example, DOS codepage 850
supports the same character set as Windows codepage 1252; DOS codepage
855 supports the same character set as Windows codepage 1251, etc.
The MS-Windows version of Emacs uses the current codepage for display
when invoked with the @samp{-nw} option. Support for codepages in the
Windows port of Emacs is part of the @file{code-pages.el} package.
@node MS-DOS Processes
@subsection Subprocesses on MS-DOS
@cindex compilation under MS-DOS
@cindex inferior processes under MS-DOS
@findex compile @r{(MS-DOS)}
@findex grep @r{(MS-DOS)}
Because MS-DOS is a single-process ``operating system,''
asynchronous subprocesses are not available. In particular, Shell
mode and its variants do not work. Most Emacs features that use
asynchronous subprocesses also don't work on MS-DOS, including
Shell mode and GUD. When in doubt, try and see; commands that
don't work output an error message saying that asynchronous processes
aren't supported.
Compilation under Emacs with @kbd{M-x compile}, searching files with
@kbd{M-x grep} and displaying differences between files with @kbd{M-x
diff} do work, by running the inferior processes synchronously. This
means you cannot do any more editing until the inferior process
finishes.
Spell checking also works, by means of special support for synchronous
invocation of the @code{ispell} program. This is slower than the
asynchronous invocation on other platforms
Instead of the Shell mode, which doesn't work on MS-DOS, you can use
the @kbd{M-x eshell} command. This invokes the Eshell package that
implements a Posix-like shell entirely in Emacs Lisp.
By contrast, Emacs compiled as a native Windows application
@strong{does} support asynchronous subprocesses.
@iftex
@xref{Windows Processes,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Windows Processes}.
@end ifnottex
@cindex printing under MS-DOS
Printing commands, such as @code{lpr-buffer}
@iftex
(@pxref{Printing,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}) and
@code{ps-print-buffer} (@pxref{PostScript,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}),
work in MS-DOS by sending the output to one of the printer ports.
@xref{MS-DOS Printing,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Printing}) and @code{ps-print-buffer} (@pxref{PostScript}),
work in MS-DOS by sending the output to one of the printer ports.
@xref{MS-DOS Printing}.
@end ifnottex
When you run a subprocess synchronously on MS-DOS, make sure the
program terminates and does not try to read keyboard input. If the
program does not terminate on its own, you will be unable to terminate
it, because MS-DOS provides no general way to terminate a process.
Pressing @kbd{C-c} or @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} might sometimes help in these
cases.
Accessing files on other machines is not supported on MS-DOS. Other
network-oriented commands such as sending mail, Web browsing, remote
login, etc., don't work either, unless network access is built into
MS-DOS with some network redirector.
@cindex directory listing on MS-DOS
@vindex dired-listing-switches @r{(MS-DOS)}
Dired on MS-DOS uses the @code{ls-lisp} package where other
platforms use the system @code{ls} command. Therefore, Dired on
MS-DOS supports only some of the possible options you can mention in
the @code{dired-listing-switches} variable. The options that work are
@samp{-A}, @samp{-a}, @samp{-c}, @samp{-i}, @samp{-r}, @samp{-S},
@samp{-s}, @samp{-t}, and @samp{-u}.
@ignore
arch-tag: 868d50ff-07f8-4a13-a807-dab6f1cdb431
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Microsoft Windows, Manifesto, Mac OS, Top
@appendix Emacs and Microsoft Windows/MS-DOS
@cindex Microsoft Windows
@cindex MS-Windows, Emacs peculiarities
This section describes peculiarities of using Emacs on Microsoft
Windows. Some of these peculiarities are also relevant to Microsoft's
older MS-DOS ``operating system'' (also known as ``MS-DOG'').
However, Emacs features that are relevant @emph{only} to MS-DOS are
described in a separate
@iftex
manual (@pxref{MS-DOS,,, emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
section (@pxref{MS-DOS}).
@end ifnottex
The behavior of Emacs on MS-Windows is reasonably similar to what is
documented in the rest of the manual, including support for long file
names, multiple frames, scroll bars, mouse menus, and subprocesses.
However, a few special considerations apply, and they are described
here.
@menu
* Text and Binary:: Text files use CRLF to terminate lines.
* Windows Files:: File-name conventions on Windows.
* ls in Lisp:: Emulation of @code{ls} for Dired.
* Windows HOME:: Where Emacs looks for your @file{.emacs}.
* Windows Keyboard:: Windows-specific keyboard features.
* Windows Mouse:: Windows-specific mouse features.
* Windows Processes:: Running subprocesses on Windows.
* Windows Printing:: How to specify the printer on MS-Windows.
* Windows Misc:: Miscellaneous Windows features.
@ifnottex
* MS-DOS:: Using Emacs on MS-DOS (otherwise known as @dfn{MS-DOG}).
@end ifnottex
@end menu
@node Text and Binary
@section Text Files and Binary Files
@cindex text and binary files on MS-DOS/MS-Windows
GNU Emacs uses newline characters to separate text lines. This is the
convention used on GNU, Unix, and other Posix-compliant systems.
@cindex end-of-line conversion on MS-DOS/MS-Windows
By contrast, MS-DOS and MS-Windows normally use carriage-return linefeed,
a two-character sequence, to separate text lines. (Linefeed is the same
character as newline.) Therefore, convenient editing of typical files
with Emacs requires conversion of these end-of-line (EOL) sequences.
And that is what Emacs normally does: it converts carriage-return
linefeed into newline when reading files, and converts newline into
carriage-return linefeed when writing files. The same mechanism that
handles conversion of international character codes does this conversion
also (@pxref{Coding Systems}).
@cindex cursor location, on MS-DOS
@cindex point location, on MS-DOS
One consequence of this special format-conversion of most files is
that character positions as reported by Emacs (@pxref{Position Info}) do
not agree with the file size information known to the operating system.
In addition, if Emacs recognizes from a file's contents that it uses
newline rather than carriage-return linefeed as its line separator, it
does not perform EOL conversion when reading or writing that file.
Thus, you can read and edit files from GNU and Unix systems on MS-DOS
with no special effort, and they will retain their Unix-style
end-of-line convention after you edit them.
The mode line indicates whether end-of-line translation was used for
the current buffer. If MS-DOS end-of-line translation is in use for the
buffer, the MS-Windows build of Emacs displays a backslash @samp{\} after
the coding system mnemonic near the beginning of the mode line
(@pxref{Mode Line}). If no EOL translation was performed, the string
@samp{(Unix)} is displayed instead of the backslash, to alert you that the
file's EOL format is not the usual carriage-return linefeed.
@cindex DOS-to-Unix conversion of files
To visit a file and specify whether it uses DOS-style or Unix-style
end-of-line, specify a coding system (@pxref{Text Coding}). For
example, @kbd{C-x @key{RET} c unix @key{RET} C-x C-f foobar.txt}
visits the file @file{foobar.txt} without converting the EOLs; if some
line ends with a carriage-return linefeed pair, Emacs will display
@samp{^M} at the end of that line. Similarly, you can direct Emacs to
save a buffer in a specified EOL format with the @kbd{C-x @key{RET} f}
command. For example, to save a buffer with Unix EOL format, type
@kbd{C-x @key{RET} f unix @key{RET} C-x C-s}. If you visit a file
with DOS EOL conversion, then save it with Unix EOL format, that
effectively converts the file to Unix EOL style, like @code{dos2unix}.
@cindex untranslated file system
@findex add-untranslated-filesystem
When you use NFS, Samba, or some other similar method to access file
systems that reside on computers using GNU or Unix systems, Emacs
should not perform end-of-line translation on any files in these file
systems---not even when you create a new file. To request this,
designate these file systems as @dfn{untranslated} file systems by
calling the function @code{add-untranslated-filesystem}. It takes one
argument: the file system name, including a drive letter and
optionally a directory. For example,
@example
(add-untranslated-filesystem "Z:")
@end example
@noindent
designates drive Z as an untranslated file system, and
@example
(add-untranslated-filesystem "Z:\\foo")
@end example
@noindent
designates directory @file{\foo} on drive Z as an untranslated file
system.
Most often you would use @code{add-untranslated-filesystem} in your
@file{.emacs} file, or in @file{site-start.el} so that all the users at
your site get the benefit of it.
@findex remove-untranslated-filesystem
To countermand the effect of @code{add-untranslated-filesystem}, use
the function @code{remove-untranslated-filesystem}. This function takes
one argument, which should be a string just like the one that was used
previously with @code{add-untranslated-filesystem}.
Designating a file system as untranslated does not affect character
set conversion, only end-of-line conversion. Essentially, it directs
Emacs to create new files with the Unix-style convention of using
newline at the end of a line. @xref{Coding Systems}.
@vindex file-name-buffer-file-type-alist
@cindex binary files, on MS-DOS/MS-Windows
Some kinds of files should not be converted at all, because their
contents are not really text. Therefore, Emacs on MS-Windows distinguishes
certain files as @dfn{binary files}. (This distinction is not part of
MS-Windows; it is made by Emacs only.) Binary files include executable
programs, compressed archives, etc. Emacs uses the file name to decide
whether to treat a file as binary: the variable
@code{file-name-buffer-file-type-alist} defines the file-name patterns
that indicate binary files. If a file name matches one of the patterns
for binary files (those whose associations are of the type
@code{(@var{pattern} . t)}, Emacs reads and writes that file using the
@code{no-conversion} coding system (@pxref{Coding Systems}) which turns
off @emph{all} coding-system conversions, not only the EOL conversion.
@code{file-name-buffer-file-type-alist} also includes file-name patterns
for files which are known to be Windows-style text files with
carriage-return linefeed EOL format, such as @file{CONFIG.SYS}; Emacs
always writes those files with Windows-style EOLs.
If a file which belongs to an untranslated file system matches one of
the file-name patterns in @code{file-name-buffer-file-type-alist}, the
EOL conversion is determined by @code{file-name-buffer-file-type-alist}.
@node Windows Files
@section File Names on MS-Windows
@cindex file names on MS-Windows
MS-Windows and MS-DOS normally use a backslash, @samp{\}, to
separate name units within a file name, instead of the slash used on
other systems. Emacs on MS-DOS/MS-Windows permits use of either slash or
backslash, and also knows about drive letters in file names.
@cindex file-name completion, on MS-Windows
On MS-DOS/MS-Windows, file names are case-insensitive, so Emacs by
default ignores letter-case in file names during completion.
@vindex w32-get-true-file-attributes
If the variable @code{w32-get-true-file-attributes} is
non-@code{nil} (the default), Emacs tries to determine the accurate
link counts for files. This option is only useful on NTFS volumes,
and it considerably slows down Dired and other features, so use it
only on fast machines.
@node ls in Lisp
@section Emulation of @code{ls} on MS-Windows
@cindex Dired, and MS-Windows/MS-DOS
@cindex @code{ls} emulation
Dired normally uses the external program @code{ls} (or its close
work-alike) to produce the directory listing displayed in Dired
buffers (@pxref{Dired}). However, MS-Windows and MS-DOS systems don't
come with such a program, although several ports of @sc{gnu} @code{ls}
are available. Therefore, Emacs on those systems @emph{emulates}
@code{ls} in Lisp, by using the @file{ls-lisp.el} package. While
@file{ls-lisp.el} provides a reasonably full emulation of @code{ls},
there are some options and features peculiar to that emulation;
@iftex
for more details, see the documentation of the variables whose names
begin with @code{ls-lisp}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
they are described in this section.
The @code{ls} emulation supports many of the @code{ls} switches, but
it doesn't support all of them. Here's the list of the switches it
does support: @option{-A}, @option{-a}, @option{-B}, @option{-C},
@option{-c}, @option{-i}, @option{-G}, @option{-g}, @option{-R},
@option{-r}, @option{-S}, @option{-s}, @option{-t}, @option{-U},
@option{-u}, and @option{-X}. The @option{-F} switch is partially
supported (it appends the character that classifies the file, but does
not prevent symlink following).
@vindex ls-lisp-use-insert-directory-program
On MS-Windows and MS-DOS, @file{ls-lisp.el} is preloaded when Emacs
is built, so the Lisp emulation of @code{ls} is always used on those
platforms. If you have a ported @code{ls}, setting
@code{ls-lisp-use-insert-directory-program} to a non-@code{nil} value
will revert to using an external program named by the variable
@code{insert-directory-program}.
@vindex ls-lisp-ignore-case
By default, @file{ls-lisp.el} uses a case-sensitive sort order for
the directory listing it produces; this is so the listing looks the
same as on other platforms. If you wish that the files be sorted in
case-insensitive order, set the variable @code{ls-lisp-ignore-case} to
a non-@code{nil} value.
@vindex ls-lisp-dirs-first
By default, files and subdirectories are sorted together, to emulate
the behavior of @code{ls}. However, native MS-Windows/MS-DOS file
managers list the directories before the files; if you want that
behavior, customize the option @code{ls-lisp-dirs-first} to a
non-@code{nil} value.
@vindex ls-lisp-verbosity
The variable @code{ls-lisp-verbosity} controls the file attributes
that @file{ls-lisp.el} displays. The value should be a list that
contains one or more of the symbols @code{links}, @code{uid}, and
@code{gid}. @code{links} means display the count of different file
names that are associated with (a.k.a.@: @dfn{links to}) the file's
data; this is only useful on NTFS volumes. @code{uid} means display
the numerical identifier of the user who owns the file. @code{gid}
means display the numerical identifier of the file owner's group. The
default value is @code{(links uid gid)} i.e.@: all the 3 optional
attributes are displayed.
@vindex ls-lisp-emulation
The variable @code{ls-lisp-emulation} controls the flavour of the
@code{ls} emulation by setting the defaults for the 3 options
described above: @code{ls-lisp-ignore-case},
@code{ls-lisp-dirs-first}, and @code{ls-lisp-verbosity}. The value of
this option can be one of the following symbols:
@table @code
@item GNU
@itemx nil
Emulate @sc{gnu} systems; this is the default. This sets
@code{ls-lisp-ignore-case} and @code{ls-lisp-dirs-first} to
@code{nil}, and @code{ls-lisp-verbosity} to @code{(links uid gid)}.
@item UNIX
Emulate Unix systems. Like @code{GNU}, but sets
@code{ls-lisp-verbosity} to @code{(links uid)}.
@item MacOS
Emulate MacOS. Sets @code{ls-lisp-ignore-case} to @code{t}, and
@code{ls-lisp-dirs-first} and @code{ls-lisp-verbosity} to @code{nil}.
@item MS-Windows
Emulate MS-Windows. Sets @code{ls-lisp-ignore-case} and
@code{ls-lisp-dirs-first} to @code{t}, and @code{ls-lisp-verbosity} to
@code{(links)} on Windows NT/2K/XP/2K3 and to @code{nil} on Windows 9X.
Note that the default emulation is @emph{not} @code{MS-Windows}, even
on Windows, since many users of Emacs on those platforms prefer the
@sc{gnu} defaults.
@end table
@noindent
Any other value of @code{ls-lisp-emulation} means the same as
@code{GNU}. Note that this option needs to be set @emph{before}
@file{ls-lisp.el} is loaded, which means that on MS-Windows and MS-DOS
you will have to set the value from your @file{.emacs} file and then
restart Emacs, since @file{ls-lisp.el} is preloaded.
@vindex ls-lisp-support-shell-wildcards
The variable @code{ls-lisp-support-shell-wildcards} controls how
file-name patterns are supported: if it is non-@code{nil} (the
default), they are treated as shell-style wildcards; otherwise they
are treated as Emacs regular expressions.
@vindex ls-lisp-format-time-list
The variable @code{ls-lisp-format-time-list} defines how to format
the date and time of files. @emph{The value of this variable is
ignored}, unless Emacs cannot determine the current locale. (However,
if the value of @code{ls-lisp-use-localized-time-format} is
non-@code{nil}, Emacs obeys @code{ls-lisp-format-time-list} even if
the current locale is available; see below.)
The value of @code{ls-lisp-format-time-list} is a list of 2 strings.
The first string is used if the file was modified within the current
year, while the second string is used for older files. In each of
these two strings you can use @samp{%}-sequences to substitute parts
of the time. For example:
@lisp
("%b %e %H:%M" "%b %e %Y")
@end lisp
@noindent
Note that the strings substituted for these @samp{%}-sequences depend
on the current locale. @xref{Time Parsing,,, elisp, The Emacs Lisp
Reference Manual}, for more about format time specs.
@vindex ls-lisp-use-localized-time-format
Normally, Emacs formats the file time stamps in either traditional
or ISO-style time format. However, if the value of the variable
@code{ls-lisp-use-localized-time-format} is non-@code{nil}, Emacs
formats file time stamps according to what
@code{ls-lisp-format-time-list} specifies. The @samp{%}-sequences in
@code{ls-lisp-format-time-list} produce locale-dependent month and day
names, which might cause misalignment of columns in Dired display.
@end ifnottex
@node Windows HOME
@section HOME Directory on MS-Windows
@cindex @code{HOME} directory on MS-Windows
The Windows equivalent of the @code{HOME} directory is the
@dfn{user-specific application data directory}. The actual location
depends on your Windows version and system configuration; typical values
are @file{C:\Documents and Settings\@var{username}\Application Data} on
Windows 2K/XP and later, and either @file{C:\WINDOWS\Application Data}
or @file{C:\WINDOWS\Profiles\@var{username}\Application Data} on the
older Windows 9X/ME systems.
@cindex init file @file{.emacs} on MS-Windows
The home directory is where your init file @file{.emacs} is stored.
When Emacs starts, it first checks whether the environment variable
@env{HOME} is set. If it is, it looks for the init file in the
directory pointed by @env{HOME}. If @env{HOME} is not defined, Emacs
checks for an existing @file{.emacs} file in @file{C:\}, the root
directory of drive @file{C:}@footnote{
The check in @file{C:\} is in preference to the application data
directory for compatibility with older versions of Emacs, which didn't
check the application data directory.
}. If there's no such file in @file{C:\}, Emacs next uses the Windows
system calls to find out the exact location of your application data
directory. If that fails as well, Emacs falls back to @file{C:\}.
Whatever the final place is, Emacs sets the value of the @env{HOME}
environment variable to point to it, and it will use that location for
other files and directories it normally creates in the user's home
directory.
You can always find out where Emacs thinks is your home directory's
location by typing @kbd{C-x d ~/ @key{RET}}. This should present the
list of files in the home directory, and show its full name on the
first line. Likewise, to visit your init file, type @kbd{C-x C-f
~/.emacs @key{RET}}.
@cindex @file{_emacs} init file, MS-Windows
Because MS-DOS does not allow file names with leading dots, and
because older Windows systems made it hard to create files with such
names, the Windows port of Emacs supports an alternative name
@file{_emacs} as a fallback, if such a file exists in the home
directory, whereas @file{.emacs} does not.
@node Windows Keyboard
@section Keyboard Usage on MS-Windows
@cindex keyboard, MS-Windows
This section describes the Windows-specific features related to
keyboard input in Emacs.
@cindex MS-Windows keyboard shortcuts
Many key combinations (known as ``keyboard shortcuts'') that have
conventional uses in MS-Windows programs conflict with traditional
Emacs key bindings. (These Emacs key bindings were established years
before Microsoft was founded.) Examples of conflicts include
@kbd{C-c}, @kbd{C-x}, @kbd{C-z}, @kbd{C-a}, and @kbd{W-@key{SPC}}.
You can redefine some of them with meanings more like the MS-Windows
meanings by enabling CUA Mode (@pxref{CUA Bindings}).
@kindex F10 @r{(MS-Windows)}
@cindex menu bar access using keyboard @r{(MS-Windows)}
The @key{F10} key on Windows activates the menu bar in a way that
makes it possible to use the menus without a mouse. In this mode, the
arrow keys traverse the menus, @key{RET} selects a highlighted menu
item, and @key{ESC} closes the menu.
@iftex
@inforef{Windows Keyboard, , emacs}, for information about additional
Windows-specific variables in this category.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@vindex w32-alt-is-meta
@cindex @code{Alt} key (MS-Windows)
By default, the key labeled @key{Alt} is mapped as the @key{META}
key. If you wish it to produce the @code{Alt} modifier instead, set
the variable @code{w32-alt-is-meta} to a @code{nil} value.
@vindex w32-capslock-is-shiftlock
By default, the @key{CapsLock} key only affects normal character
keys (it converts lower-case characters to their upper-case
variants). However, if you set the variable
@code{w32-capslock-is-shiftlock} to a non-@code{nil} value, the
@key{CapsLock} key will affect non-character keys as well, as if you
pressed the @key{Shift} key while typing the non-character key.
@vindex w32-enable-caps-lock
If the variable @code{w32-enable-caps-lock} is set to a @code{nil}
value, the @key{CapsLock} key produces the symbol @code{capslock}
instead of the shifted version of they keys. The default value is
@code{t}.
@vindex w32-enable-num-lock
@cindex keypad keys (MS-Windows)
Similarly, if @code{w32-enable-num-lock} is @code{nil}, the
@key{NumLock} key will produce the symbol @code{kp-numlock}. The
default is @code{t}, which causes @key{NumLock} to work as expected:
toggle the meaning of the keys on the numeric keypad.
@end ifnottex
@vindex w32-apps-modifier
The variable @code{w32-apps-modifier} controls the effect of the
@key{Apps} key (usually located between the right @key{Alt} and the
right @key{Ctrl} keys). Its value can be one of the symbols
@code{hyper}, @code{super}, @code{meta}, @code{alt}, @code{control},
or @code{shift} for the respective modifier, or @code{nil} to appear
as the key @code{apps}. The default is @code{nil}.
@vindex w32-lwindow-modifier
@vindex w32-rwindow-modifier
@vindex w32-scroll-lock-modifier
The variable @code{w32-lwindow-modifier} determines the effect of
the left Windows key (usually labeled with @key{start} and the Windows
logo). If its value is @code{nil} (the default), the key will produce
the symbol @code{lwindow}. Setting it to one of the symbols
@code{hyper}, @code{super}, @code{meta}, @code{alt}, @code{control},
or @code{shift} will produce the respective modifier. A similar
variable @code{w32-rwindow-modifier} controls the effect of the right
Windows key, and @code{w32-scroll-lock-modifier} does the same for the
@key{ScrLock} key. If these variables are set to @code{nil}, the
right Windows key produces the symbol @code{rwindow} and @key{ScrLock}
produces the symbol @code{scroll}.
@vindex w32-pass-alt-to-system
@cindex Windows system menu
@cindex @code{Alt} key invokes menu (Windows)
Emacs compiled as a native Windows application normally turns off
the Windows feature that tapping the @key{ALT} key invokes the Windows
menu. The reason is that the @key{ALT} serves as @key{META} in Emacs.
When using Emacs, users often press the @key{META} key temporarily and
then change their minds; if this has the effect of bringing up the
Windows menu, it alters the meaning of subsequent commands. Many
users find this frustrating.
You can re-enable Windows' default handling of tapping the @key{ALT}
key by setting @code{w32-pass-alt-to-system} to a non-@code{nil}
value.
@ifnottex
@vindex w32-pass-lwindow-to-system
@vindex w32-pass-rwindow-to-system
The variables @code{w32-pass-lwindow-to-system} and
@code{w32-pass-rwindow-to-system} determine whether the respective
keys are passed to Windows or swallowed by Emacs. If the value is
@code{nil}, the respective key is silently swallowed by Emacs,
otherwise it is passed to Windows. The default is @code{t} for both
of these variables. Passing each of these keys to Windows produces
its normal effect: for example, @kbd{@key{Lwindow}} opens the
@code{Start} menu, etc.@footnote{
Some combinations of the ``Windows'' keys with other keys are caught
by Windows at low level in a way that Emacs currently cannot prevent.
For example, @kbd{@key{Lwindow} r} always pops up the Windows
@samp{Run} dialog. Customizing the value of
@code{w32-phantom-key-code} might help in some cases, though.}
@vindex w32-recognize-altgr
@kindex AltGr @r{(MS-Windows)}
@cindex AltGr key (MS-Windows)
The variable @code{w32-recognize-altgr} controls whether the
@key{AltGr} key (if it exists on your keyboard), or its equivalent,
the combination of the right @key{Alt} and left @key{Ctrl} keys
pressed together, is recognized as the @key{AltGr} key. The default
is @code{t}, which means these keys produce @code{AltGr}; setting it
to @code{nil} causes @key{AltGr} or the equivalent key combination to
be interpreted as the combination of @key{CTRL} and @key{META}
modifiers.
@end ifnottex
@node Windows Mouse
@section Mouse Usage on MS-Windows
@cindex mouse, and MS-Windows
This section describes the Windows-specific variables related to
mouse.
@vindex w32-mouse-button-tolerance
@cindex simulation of middle mouse button
The variable @code{w32-mouse-button-tolerance} specifies the
time interval, in milliseconds, for faking middle mouse button press
on 2-button mice. If both mouse buttons are depressed within this
time interval, Emacs generates a middle mouse button click event
instead of a double click on one of the buttons.
@vindex w32-pass-extra-mouse-buttons-to-system
If the variable @code{w32-pass-extra-mouse-buttons-to-system} is
non-@code{nil}, Emacs passes the fourth and fifth mouse buttons to
Windows.
@vindex w32-swap-mouse-buttons
The variable @code{w32-swap-mouse-buttons} controls which of the 3
mouse buttons generates the @kbd{mouse-2} events. When it is
@code{nil} (the default), the middle button generates @kbd{mouse-2}
and the right button generates @kbd{mouse-3} events. If this variable
is non-@code{nil}, the roles of these two buttons are reversed.
@node Windows Processes
@section Subprocesses on Windows 9X/ME and Windows NT/2K/XP
@cindex subprocesses on MS-Windows
@cindex DOS applications, running from Emacs
Emacs compiled as a native Windows application (as opposed to the DOS
version) includes full support for asynchronous subprocesses.
In the Windows version, synchronous and asynchronous subprocesses work
fine on both
Windows 9X/ME and Windows NT/2K/XP as long as you run only 32-bit Windows
applications. However, when you run a DOS application in a subprocess,
you may encounter problems or be unable to run the application at all;
and if you run two DOS applications at the same time in two
subprocesses, you may have to reboot your system.
Since the standard command interpreter (and most command line utilities)
on Windows 9X are DOS applications, these problems are significant when
using that system. But there's nothing we can do about them; only
Microsoft can fix them.
If you run just one DOS application subprocess, the subprocess should
work as expected as long as it is ``well-behaved'' and does not perform
direct screen access or other unusual actions. If you have a CPU
monitor application, your machine will appear to be 100% busy even when
the DOS application is idle, but this is only an artifact of the way CPU
monitors measure processor load.
You must terminate the DOS application before you start any other DOS
application in a different subprocess. Emacs is unable to interrupt or
terminate a DOS subprocess. The only way you can terminate such a
subprocess is by giving it a command that tells its program to exit.
If you attempt to run two DOS applications at the same time in separate
subprocesses, the second one that is started will be suspended until the
first one finishes, even if either or both of them are asynchronous.
@cindex kill DOS application
If you can go to the first subprocess, and tell it to exit, the second
subprocess should continue normally. However, if the second subprocess
is synchronous, Emacs itself will be hung until the first subprocess
finishes. If it will not finish without user input, then you have no
choice but to reboot if you are running on Windows 9X. If you are
running on Windows NT/2K/XP, you can use a process viewer application to kill
the appropriate instance of NTVDM instead (this will terminate both DOS
subprocesses).
If you have to reboot Windows 9X in this situation, do not use the
@code{Shutdown} command on the @code{Start} menu; that usually hangs the
system. Instead, type @kbd{CTL-ALT-@key{DEL}} and then choose
@code{Shutdown}. That usually works, although it may take a few minutes
to do its job.
@vindex w32-quote-process-args
The variable @code{w32-quote-process-args} controls how Emacs quotes
the process arguments. Non-@code{nil} means quote with the @code{"}
character. If the value is a character, use that character to escape
any quote characters that appear; otherwise chose a suitable escape
character based on the type of the program.
@ifnottex
@findex w32-shell-execute
The function @code{w32-shell-execute} can be useful for writing
customized commands that run MS-Windows applications registered to
handle a certain standard Windows operation for a specific type of
document or file. This function is a wrapper around the Windows
@code{ShellExecute} API. See the MS-Windows API documentation for
more details.
@end ifnottex
@node Windows Printing
@section Printing and MS-Windows
Printing commands, such as @code{lpr-buffer} (@pxref{Printing}) and
@code{ps-print-buffer} (@pxref{PostScript}) work in MS-DOS and
MS-Windows by sending the output to one of the printer ports, if a
Posix-style @code{lpr} program is unavailable. The same Emacs
variables control printing on all systems, but in some cases they have
different default values on MS-DOS and MS-Windows.
Emacs on Windows automatically determines your default printer and
sets the variable @var{printer-name} to that printer's name. But in
some rare cases this can fail, or you may wish to use a different
printer from within Emacs. The rest of this section explains how to
tell Emacs which printer to use.
@vindex printer-name@r{, (MS-DOS/MW-Windows)}
If you want to use your local printer, then set the Lisp variable
@code{lpr-command} to @code{""} (its default value on Windows) and
@code{printer-name} to the name of the printer port---for example,
@code{"PRN"}, the usual local printer port or @code{"LPT2"}, or
@code{"COM1"} for a serial printer. You can also set
@code{printer-name} to a file name, in which case ``printed'' output
is actually appended to that file. If you set @code{printer-name} to
@code{"NUL"}, printed output is silently discarded (sent to the system
null device).
You can also use a printer shared by another machine by setting
@code{printer-name} to the UNC share name for that printer---for
example, @code{"//joes_pc/hp4si"}. (It doesn't matter whether you use
forward slashes or backslashes here.) To find out the names of shared
printers, run the command @samp{net view} from the command prompt to
obtain a list of servers, and @samp{net view @var{server-name}} to see
the names of printers (and directories) shared by that server.
Alternatively, click the @samp{Network Neighborhood} icon on your
desktop, and look for machines which share their printers via the
network.
@cindex @samp{net use}, and printing on MS-Windows
@cindex networked printers (MS-Windows)
If the printer doesn't appear in the output of @samp{net view}, or
if setting @code{printer-name} to the UNC share name doesn't produce a
hardcopy on that printer, you can use the @samp{net use} command to
connect a local print port such as @code{"LPT2"} to the networked
printer. For example, typing @kbd{net use LPT2: \\joes_pc\hp4si}@footnote{
Note that the @samp{net use} command requires the UNC share name to be
typed with the Windows-style backslashes, while the value of
@code{printer-name} can be set with either forward- or backslashes.}
causes Windows to @dfn{capture} the @code{LPT2} port and redirect the
printed material to the printer connected to the machine @code{joes_pc}.
After this command, setting @code{printer-name} to @code{"LPT2"}
should produce the hardcopy on the networked printer.
With some varieties of Windows network software, you can instruct
Windows to capture a specific printer port such as @code{"LPT2"}, and
redirect it to a networked printer via the @w{@code{Control
Panel->Printers}} applet instead of @samp{net use}.
If you set @code{printer-name} to a file name, it's best to use an
absolute file name. Emacs changes the working directory according to
the default directory of the current buffer, so if the file name in
@code{printer-name} is relative, you will end up with several such
files, each one in the directory of the buffer from which the printing
was done.
If the value of @code{printer-name} is correct, but printing does
not produce the hardcopy on your printer, it is possible that your
printer does not support printing plain text (some cheap printers omit
this functionality). In that case, try the PostScript print commands,
described below.
@findex print-buffer @r{(MS-DOS)}
@findex print-region @r{(MS-DOS)}
@vindex lpr-headers-switches @r{(MS-DOS)}
The commands @code{print-buffer} and @code{print-region} call the
@code{pr} program, or use special switches to the @code{lpr} program, to
produce headers on each printed page. MS-DOS and MS-Windows don't
normally have these programs, so by default, the variable
@code{lpr-headers-switches} is set so that the requests to print page
headers are silently ignored. Thus, @code{print-buffer} and
@code{print-region} produce the same output as @code{lpr-buffer} and
@code{lpr-region}, respectively. If you do have a suitable @code{pr}
program (for example, from GNU Coreutils), set
@code{lpr-headers-switches} to @code{nil}; Emacs will then call
@code{pr} to produce the page headers, and print the resulting output as
specified by @code{printer-name}.
@vindex print-region-function @r{(MS-DOS)}
@cindex lpr usage under MS-DOS
@vindex lpr-command @r{(MS-DOS)}
@vindex lpr-switches @r{(MS-DOS)}
Finally, if you do have an @code{lpr} work-alike, you can set the
variable @code{lpr-command} to @code{"lpr"}. Then Emacs will use
@code{lpr} for printing, as on other systems. (If the name of the
program isn't @code{lpr}, set @code{lpr-command} to specify where to
find it.) The variable @code{lpr-switches} has its standard meaning
when @code{lpr-command} is not @code{""}. If the variable
@code{printer-name} has a string value, it is used as the value for the
@code{-P} option to @code{lpr}, as on Unix.
@findex ps-print-buffer @r{(MS-DOS)}
@findex ps-spool-buffer @r{(MS-DOS)}
@vindex ps-printer-name @r{(MS-DOS)}
@vindex ps-lpr-command @r{(MS-DOS)}
@vindex ps-lpr-switches @r{(MS-DOS)}
A parallel set of variables, @code{ps-lpr-command},
@code{ps-lpr-switches}, and @code{ps-printer-name} (@pxref{PostScript
Variables}), defines how PostScript files should be printed. These
variables are used in the same way as the corresponding variables
described above for non-PostScript printing. Thus, the value of
@code{ps-printer-name} is used as the name of the device (or file) to
which PostScript output is sent, just as @code{printer-name} is used
for non-PostScript printing. (There are two distinct sets of
variables in case you have two printers attached to two different
ports, and only one of them is a PostScript printer.)
The default value of the variable @code{ps-lpr-command} is @code{""},
which causes PostScript output to be sent to the printer port specified
by @code{ps-printer-name}, but @code{ps-lpr-command} can also be set to
the name of a program which will accept PostScript files. Thus, if you
have a non-PostScript printer, you can set this variable to the name of
a PostScript interpreter program (such as Ghostscript). Any switches
that need to be passed to the interpreter program are specified using
@code{ps-lpr-switches}. (If the value of @code{ps-printer-name} is a
string, it will be added to the list of switches as the value for the
@code{-P} option. This is probably only useful if you are using
@code{lpr}, so when using an interpreter typically you would set
@code{ps-printer-name} to something other than a string so it is
ignored.)
For example, to use Ghostscript for printing on the system's default
printer, put this in your @file{.emacs} file:
@example
(setq ps-printer-name t)
(setq ps-lpr-command "D:/gs6.01/bin/gswin32c.exe")
(setq ps-lpr-switches '("-q" "-dNOPAUSE" "-dBATCH"
"-sDEVICE=mswinpr2"
"-sPAPERSIZE=a4"))
@end example
@noindent
(This assumes that Ghostscript is installed in the
@file{D:/gs6.01} directory.)
@node Windows Misc
@section Miscellaneous Windows-specific features
This section describes miscellaneous Windows-specific features.
@vindex w32-use-visible-system-caret
@cindex screen reader software, MS-Windows
The variable @code{w32-use-visible-system-caret} is a flag that
determines whether to make the system caret visible. The default is
@code{nil}, which means Emacs draws its own cursor to indicate the
position of point. A non-@code{nil} value means Emacs will indicate
point location by the system caret; this facilitates use of screen
reader software. When this variable is non-@code{nil}, other
variables affecting the cursor display have no effect.
@iftex
@inforef{Windows Misc, , emacs}, for information about additional
Windows-specific variables in this category.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@vindex w32-grab-focus-on-raise
@cindex frame focus policy, MS-Windows
The variable @code{w32-grab-focus-on-raise}, if set to a
non-@code{nil} value causes a frame to grab focus when it is raised.
The default is @code{t}, which fits well with the Windows default
click-to-focus policy.
@vindex w32-list-proportional-fonts
The variable @code{w32-list-proportional-fonts} controls whether
proportional fonts are included in the font selection dialog. If its
value is non-@code{nil}, these fonts will be included. The default is
@code{nil}.
@end ifnottex
@ifnottex
@include msdog-xtra.texi
@end ifnottex
@ignore
arch-tag: f39d2590-5dcc-4318-88d9-0eb73ca10fa2
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in emacs-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node Picture Mode
@chapter Editing Pictures
@cindex pictures
@cindex making pictures out of text characters
@findex edit-picture
To edit a picture made out of text characters (for example, a picture
of the division of a register into fields, as a comment in a program),
use the command @kbd{M-x edit-picture} to enter Picture mode.
In Picture mode, editing is based on the @dfn{quarter-plane} model of
text, according to which the text characters lie studded on an area that
stretches infinitely far to the right and downward. The concept of the end
of a line does not exist in this model; the most you can say is where the
last nonblank character on the line is found.
Of course, Emacs really always considers text as a sequence of
characters, and lines really do have ends. But Picture mode replaces
the most frequently-used commands with variants that simulate the
quarter-plane model of text. They do this by inserting spaces or by
converting tabs to spaces.
Most of the basic editing commands of Emacs are redefined by Picture mode
to do essentially the same thing but in a quarter-plane way. In addition,
Picture mode defines various keys starting with the @kbd{C-c} prefix to
run special picture editing commands.
One of these keys, @kbd{C-c C-c}, is particularly important. Often a
picture is part of a larger file that is usually edited in some other
major mode. @kbd{M-x edit-picture} records the name of the previous
major mode so you can use the @kbd{C-c C-c} command
(@code{picture-mode-exit}) later to go back to that mode. @kbd{C-c C-c}
also deletes spaces from the ends of lines, unless given a numeric
argument.
The special commands of Picture mode all work in other modes (provided
the @file{picture} library is loaded), but are not bound to keys except
in Picture mode. The descriptions below talk of moving ``one column''
and so on, but all the picture mode commands handle numeric arguments as
their normal equivalents do.
@vindex picture-mode-hook
Turning on Picture mode runs the hook @code{picture-mode-hook}.
Additional extensions to Picture mode can be found in
@file{artist.el}.
@menu
* Basic Picture:: Basic concepts and simple commands of Picture Mode.
* Insert in Picture:: Controlling direction of cursor motion
after "self-inserting" characters.
* Tabs in Picture:: Various features for tab stops and indentation.
* Rectangles in Picture:: Clearing and superimposing rectangles.
@end menu
@node Basic Picture
@section Basic Editing in Picture Mode
@findex picture-forward-column
@findex picture-backward-column
@findex picture-move-down
@findex picture-move-up
@cindex editing in Picture mode
Most keys do the same thing in Picture mode that they usually do, but
do it in a quarter-plane style. For example, @kbd{C-f} is rebound to
run @code{picture-forward-column}, a command which moves point one
column to the right, inserting a space if necessary so that the actual
end of the line makes no difference. @kbd{C-b} is rebound to run
@code{picture-backward-column}, which always moves point left one
column, converting a tab to multiple spaces if necessary. @kbd{C-n} and
@kbd{C-p} are rebound to run @code{picture-move-down} and
@code{picture-move-up}, which can either insert spaces or convert tabs
as necessary to make sure that point stays in exactly the same column.
@kbd{C-e} runs @code{picture-end-of-line}, which moves to after the last
nonblank character on the line. There is no need to change @kbd{C-a},
as the choice of screen model does not affect beginnings of
lines.
@findex picture-newline
Insertion of text is adapted to the quarter-plane screen model
through the use of Overwrite mode
@iftex
(@pxref{Minor Modes,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.)
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Minor Modes}.)
@end ifnottex
Self-inserting characters replace existing text, column by column,
rather than pushing existing text to the right. @key{RET} runs
@code{picture-newline}, which just moves to the beginning of the
following line so that new text will replace that line.
@findex picture-backward-clear-column
@findex picture-clear-column
@findex picture-clear-line
In Picture mode, the commands that normally delete or kill text,
instead erase text (replacing it with spaces). @key{DEL}
(@code{picture-backward-clear-column}) replaces the preceding
character with a space rather than removing it; this moves point
backwards. @kbd{C-d} (@code{picture-clear-column}) replaces the next
character or characters with spaces, but does not move point. (If you
want to clear characters to spaces and move forward over them, use
@key{SPC}.) @kbd{C-k} (@code{picture-clear-line}) really kills the
contents of lines, but does not delete the newlines from the buffer.
@findex picture-open-line
To do actual insertion, you must use special commands. @kbd{C-o}
(@code{picture-open-line}) creates a blank line after the current
line; it never splits a line. @kbd{C-M-o} (@code{split-line}) makes
sense in Picture mode, so it is not changed. @kbd{C-j}
(@code{picture-duplicate-line}) inserts another line with the same
contents below the current line.
@kindex C-c C-d @r{(Picture mode)}
To do actual deletion in Picture mode, use @kbd{C-w}, @kbd{C-c C-d}
(which is defined as @code{delete-char}, as @kbd{C-d} is in other
modes), or one of the picture rectangle commands (@pxref{Rectangles in
Picture}).
@node Insert in Picture
@section Controlling Motion after Insert
@findex picture-movement-up
@findex picture-movement-down
@findex picture-movement-left
@findex picture-movement-right
@findex picture-movement-nw
@findex picture-movement-ne
@findex picture-movement-sw
@findex picture-movement-se
@kindex C-c < @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c > @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c ^ @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c . @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c ` @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c ' @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c / @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c \ @r{(Picture mode)}
Since ``self-inserting'' characters in Picture mode overwrite and move
point, there is no essential restriction on how point should be moved.
Normally point moves right, but you can specify any of the eight
orthogonal or diagonal directions for motion after a ``self-inserting''
character. This is useful for drawing lines in the buffer.
@table @kbd
@item C-c <
@itemx C-c @key{LEFT}
Move left after insertion (@code{picture-movement-left}).
@item C-c >
@itemx C-c @key{RIGHT}
Move right after insertion (@code{picture-movement-right}).
@item C-c ^
@itemx C-c @key{UP}
Move up after insertion (@code{picture-movement-up}).
@item C-c .
@itemx C-c @key{DOWN}
Move down after insertion (@code{picture-movement-down}).
@item C-c `
@itemx C-c @key{HOME}
Move up and left (``northwest'') after insertion (@code{picture-movement-nw}).
@item C-c '
@itemx C-c @key{PAGEUP}
Move up and right (``northeast'') after insertion
(@code{picture-movement-ne}).
@item C-c /
@itemx C-c @key{END}
Move down and left (``southwest'') after insertion
@*(@code{picture-movement-sw}).
@item C-c \
@itemx C-c @key{PAGEDOWN}
Move down and right (``southeast'') after insertion
@*(@code{picture-movement-se}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-f @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c C-b @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-motion
@findex picture-motion-reverse
Two motion commands move based on the current Picture insertion
direction. The command @kbd{C-c C-f} (@code{picture-motion}) moves in the
same direction as motion after ``insertion'' currently does, while @kbd{C-c
C-b} (@code{picture-motion-reverse}) moves in the opposite direction.
@node Tabs in Picture
@section Picture Mode Tabs
@kindex M-TAB @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-tab-search
@vindex picture-tab-chars
Two kinds of tab-like action are provided in Picture mode. Use
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}} (@code{picture-tab-search}) for context-based tabbing.
With no argument, it moves to a point underneath the next
``interesting'' character that follows whitespace in the previous
nonblank line. ``Next'' here means ``appearing at a horizontal position
greater than the one point starts out at.'' With an argument, as in
@kbd{C-u M-@key{TAB}}, this command moves to the next such interesting
character in the current line. @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} does not change the
text; it only moves point. ``Interesting'' characters are defined by
the variable @code{picture-tab-chars}, which should define a set of
characters. The syntax for this variable is like the syntax used inside
of @samp{[@dots{}]} in a regular expression---but without the @samp{[}
and the @samp{]}. Its default value is @code{"!-~"}.
@findex picture-tab
@key{TAB} itself runs @code{picture-tab}, which operates based on the
current tab stop settings; it is the Picture mode equivalent of
@code{tab-to-tab-stop}. Normally it just moves point, but with a numeric
argument it clears the text that it moves over.
@kindex C-c TAB @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-set-tab-stops
The context-based and tab-stop-based forms of tabbing are brought
together by the command @kbd{C-c @key{TAB}} (@code{picture-set-tab-stops}).
This command sets the tab stops to the positions which @kbd{M-@key{TAB}}
would consider significant in the current line. The use of this command,
together with @key{TAB}, can get the effect of context-based tabbing. But
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}} is more convenient in the cases where it is sufficient.
It may be convenient to prevent use of actual tab characters in
pictures. For example, this prevents @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} from messing
up the picture. You can do this by setting the variable
@code{indent-tabs-mode} to @code{nil}.
@node Rectangles in Picture
@section Picture Mode Rectangle Commands
@cindex rectangles and Picture mode
@cindex Picture mode and rectangles
Picture mode defines commands for working on rectangular pieces of
the text in ways that fit with the quarter-plane model. The standard
rectangle commands may also be useful.
@iftex
@xref{Rectangles,,, emacs, the Emacs Manual}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@xref{Rectangles}.
@end ifnottex
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-k
Clear out the region-rectangle with spaces
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle}). With argument, delete the text.
@item C-c C-w @var{r}
Similar, but save rectangle contents in register @var{r} first
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle-to-register}).
@item C-c C-y
Copy last killed rectangle into the buffer by overwriting, with upper
left corner at point (@code{picture-yank-rectangle}). With argument,
insert instead.
@item C-c C-x @var{r}
Similar, but use the rectangle in register @var{r}
(@code{picture-yank-rectangle-from-register}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-k @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c C-w @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-clear-rectangle
@findex picture-clear-rectangle-to-register
The picture rectangle commands @kbd{C-c C-k}
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle}) and @kbd{C-c C-w}
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle-to-register}) differ from the standard
rectangle commands in that they normally clear the rectangle instead of
deleting it; this is analogous with the way @kbd{C-d} is changed in Picture
mode.
However, deletion of rectangles can be useful in Picture mode, so
these commands delete the rectangle if given a numeric argument.
@kbd{C-c C-k} either with or without a numeric argument saves the
rectangle for @kbd{C-c C-y}.
@kindex C-c C-y @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c C-x @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-yank-rectangle
@findex picture-yank-rectangle-from-register
The Picture mode commands for yanking rectangles differ from the
standard ones in that they overwrite instead of inserting. This is
the same way that Picture mode insertion of other text differs from
other modes. @kbd{C-c C-y} (@code{picture-yank-rectangle}) inserts
(by overwriting) the rectangle that was most recently killed, while
@kbd{C-c C-x} (@code{picture-yank-rectangle-from-register}) does
likewise for the rectangle found in a specified register.
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Registers, Display, CUA Bindings, Top
@chapter Registers
@cindex registers
Emacs @dfn{registers} are compartments where you can save text,
rectangles, positions, and other things for later use. Once you save
text or a rectangle in a register, you can copy it into the buffer
once, or many times; you can move point to a position saved in a
register once, or many times.
@findex view-register
Each register has a name, which consists of a single character. A
register can store a number, a piece of text, a rectangle, a position,
a window configuration, or a file name, but only one thing at any
given time. Whatever you store in a register remains there until you
store something else in that register. To see what a register @var{r}
contains, use @kbd{M-x view-register}.
@table @kbd
@item M-x view-register @key{RET} @var{r}
Display a description of what register @var{r} contains.
@end table
@dfn{Bookmarks} record files and positions in them, so you can
return to those positions when you look at the file again.
Bookmarks are similar enough in spirit to registers that they
seem to belong in this chapter.
@menu
* Position: RegPos. Saving positions in registers.
* Text: RegText. Saving text in registers.
* Rectangle: RegRect. Saving rectangles in registers.
* Configurations: RegConfig. Saving window configurations in registers.
* Numbers: RegNumbers. Numbers in registers.
* Files: RegFiles. File names in registers.
* Bookmarks:: Bookmarks are like registers, but persistent.
@end menu
@node RegPos
@section Saving Positions in Registers
@cindex saving position in a register
Saving a position records a place in a buffer so that you can move
back there later. Moving to a saved position switches to that buffer
and moves point to that place in it.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r @key{SPC} @var{r}
Save position of point in register @var{r} (@code{point-to-register}).
@item C-x r j @var{r}
Jump to the position saved in register @var{r} (@code{jump-to-register}).
@end table
@kindex C-x r SPC
@findex point-to-register
To save the current position of point in a register, choose a name
@var{r} and type @kbd{C-x r @key{SPC} @var{r}}. The register @var{r}
retains the position thus saved until you store something else in that
register.
@kindex C-x r j
@findex jump-to-register
The command @kbd{C-x r j @var{r}} moves point to the position recorded
in register @var{r}. The register is not affected; it continues to
hold the same position. You can jump to the saved position any number
of times.
If you use @kbd{C-x r j} to go to a saved position, but the buffer it
was saved from has been killed, @kbd{C-x r j} tries to create the buffer
again by visiting the same file. Of course, this works only for buffers
that were visiting files.
@node RegText
@section Saving Text in Registers
@cindex saving text in a register
When you want to insert a copy of the same piece of text several
times, it may be inconvenient to yank it from the kill ring, since each
subsequent kill moves that entry further down the ring. An alternative
is to store the text in a register and later retrieve it.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r s @var{r}
Copy region into register @var{r} (@code{copy-to-register}).
@item C-x r i @var{r}
Insert text from register @var{r} (@code{insert-register}).
@item M-x append-to-register @key{RET} @var{r}
Append region to text in register @var{r}.
@item M-x prepend-to-register @key{RET} @var{r}
Prepend region to text in register @var{r}.
@end table
@kindex C-x r s
@kindex C-x r i
@findex copy-to-register
@findex insert-register
@kbd{C-x r s @var{r}} stores a copy of the text of the region into
the register named @var{r}. @kbd{C-u C-x r s @var{r}}, the same
command with a numeric argument, deletes the text from the buffer as
well; you can think of this as ``moving'' the region text into the register.
@findex append-to-register
@findex prepend-to-register
@kbd{M-x append-to-register @key{RET} @var{r}} appends the copy of
the text in the region to the text already stored in the register
named @var{r}. If invoked with a numeric argument, it deletes the
region after appending it to the register. The command
@code{prepend-to-register} is similar, except that it @emph{prepends}
the region text to the text in the register, rather than
@emph{appending} it.
@kbd{C-x r i @var{r}} inserts in the buffer the text from register
@var{r}. Normally it leaves point before the text and places the mark
after, but with a numeric argument (@kbd{C-u}) it puts point after the
text and the mark before.
@node RegRect
@section Saving Rectangles in Registers
@cindex saving rectangle in a register
A register can contain a rectangle instead of linear text. The
rectangle is represented as a list of strings. @xref{Rectangles}, for
basic information on how to specify a rectangle in the buffer.
@table @kbd
@findex copy-rectangle-to-register
@kindex C-x r r
@item C-x r r @var{r}
Copy the region-rectangle into register @var{r}
(@code{copy-rectangle-to-register}). With numeric argument, delete it as
well.
@item C-x r i @var{r}
Insert the rectangle stored in register @var{r} (if it contains a
rectangle) (@code{insert-register}).
@end table
The @kbd{C-x r i @var{r}} command inserts a text string if the
register contains one, and inserts a rectangle if the register contains
one.
See also the command @code{sort-columns}, which you can think of
as sorting a rectangle. @xref{Sorting}.
@node RegConfig
@section Saving Window Configurations in Registers
@cindex saving window configuration in a register
@findex window-configuration-to-register
@findex frame-configuration-to-register
@kindex C-x r w
@kindex C-x r f
You can save the window configuration of the selected frame in a
register, or even the configuration of all windows in all frames, and
restore the configuration later.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r w @var{r}
Save the state of the selected frame's windows in register @var{r}
(@code{window-configuration-to-register}).
@item C-x r f @var{r}
Save the state of all frames, including all their windows, in register
@var{r} (@code{frame-configuration-to-register}).
@end table
Use @kbd{C-x r j @var{r}} to restore a window or frame configuration.
This is the same command used to restore a cursor position. When you
restore a frame configuration, any existing frames not included in the
configuration become invisible. If you wish to delete these frames
instead, use @kbd{C-u C-x r j @var{r}}.
@node RegNumbers
@section Keeping Numbers in Registers
@cindex saving number in a register
There are commands to store a number in a register, to insert
the number in the buffer in decimal, and to increment it. These commands
can be useful in keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard Macros}).
@table @kbd
@item C-u @var{number} C-x r n @var{r}
@kindex C-x r n
@findex number-to-register
Store @var{number} into register @var{r} (@code{number-to-register}).
@item C-u @var{number} C-x r + @var{r}
@kindex C-x r +
@findex increment-register
Increment the number in register @var{r} by @var{number}
(@code{increment-register}).
@item C-x r i @var{r}
Insert the number from register @var{r} into the buffer.
@end table
@kbd{C-x r i} is the same command used to insert any other sort of
register contents into the buffer. @kbd{C-x r +} with no numeric
argument increments the register value by 1; @kbd{C-x r n} with no
numeric argument stores zero in the register.
@node RegFiles
@section Keeping File Names in Registers
@cindex saving file name in a register
If you visit certain file names frequently, you can visit them more
conveniently if you put their names in registers. Here's the Lisp code
used to put a file name in a register:
@smallexample
(set-register ?@var{r} '(file . @var{name}))
@end smallexample
@need 3000
@noindent
For example,
@smallexample
(set-register ?z '(file . "/gd/gnu/emacs/19.0/src/ChangeLog"))
@end smallexample
@noindent
puts the file name shown in register @samp{z}.
To visit the file whose name is in register @var{r}, type @kbd{C-x r j
@var{r}}. (This is the same command used to jump to a position or
restore a frame configuration.)
@node Bookmarks
@section Bookmarks
@cindex bookmarks
@dfn{Bookmarks} are somewhat like registers in that they record
positions you can jump to. Unlike registers, they have long names, and
they persist automatically from one Emacs session to the next. The
prototypical use of bookmarks is to record ``where you were reading'' in
various files.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r m @key{RET}
Set the bookmark for the visited file, at point.
@item C-x r m @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-set
Set the bookmark named @var{bookmark} at point (@code{bookmark-set}).
@item C-x r b @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-jump
Jump to the bookmark named @var{bookmark} (@code{bookmark-jump}).
@item C-x r l
@findex list-bookmarks
List all bookmarks (@code{list-bookmarks}).
@item M-x bookmark-save
@findex bookmark-save
Save all the current bookmark values in the default bookmark file.
@end table
@kindex C-x r m
@findex bookmark-set
@kindex C-x r b
@findex bookmark-jump
The prototypical use for bookmarks is to record one current position
in each of several files. So the command @kbd{C-x r m}, which sets a
bookmark, uses the visited file name as the default for the bookmark
name. If you name each bookmark after the file it points to, then you
can conveniently revisit any of those files with @kbd{C-x r b}, and move
to the position of the bookmark at the same time.
@kindex C-x r l
To display a list of all your bookmarks in a separate buffer, type
@kbd{C-x r l} (@code{list-bookmarks}). If you switch to that buffer,
you can use it to edit your bookmark definitions or annotate the
bookmarks. Type @kbd{C-h m} in the bookmark buffer for more
information about its special editing commands.
When you kill Emacs, Emacs offers to save your bookmark values in your
default bookmark file, @file{~/.emacs.bmk}, if you have changed any
bookmark values. You can also save the bookmarks at any time with the
@kbd{M-x bookmark-save} command. The bookmark commands load your
default bookmark file automatically. This saving and loading is how
bookmarks persist from one Emacs session to the next.
@vindex bookmark-save-flag
If you set the variable @code{bookmark-save-flag} to 1, then each
command that sets a bookmark will also save your bookmarks; this way,
you don't lose any bookmark values even if Emacs crashes. (The value,
if a number, says how many bookmark modifications should go by between
saving.)
@vindex bookmark-search-size
Bookmark position values are saved with surrounding context, so that
@code{bookmark-jump} can find the proper position even if the file is
modified slightly. The variable @code{bookmark-search-size} says how
many characters of context to record on each side of the bookmark's
position.
Here are some additional commands for working with bookmarks:
@table @kbd
@item M-x bookmark-load @key{RET} @var{filename} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-load
Load a file named @var{filename} that contains a list of bookmark
values. You can use this command, as well as @code{bookmark-write}, to
work with other files of bookmark values in addition to your default
bookmark file.
@item M-x bookmark-write @key{RET} @var{filename} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-write
Save all the current bookmark values in the file @var{filename}.
@item M-x bookmark-delete @key{RET} @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-delete
Delete the bookmark named @var{bookmark}.
@item M-x bookmark-insert-location @key{RET} @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-insert-location
Insert in the buffer the name of the file that bookmark @var{bookmark}
points to.
@item M-x bookmark-insert @key{RET} @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-insert
Insert in the buffer the @emph{contents} of the file that bookmark
@var{bookmark} points to.
@end table
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Screen, User Input, Acknowledgments, Top
@chapter The Organization of the Screen
@cindex screen
@cindex parts of the screen
On a text-only terminal, the Emacs display occupies the whole
screen. On a graphical display, such as on GNU/Linux using the X
Window System, Emacs creates its own windows to use. We use the term
@dfn{frame} to mean the entire text-only screen or an entire
system-level window used by Emacs. Emacs uses both kinds of frames,
in the same way, to display your editing. Emacs normally starts out
with just one frame, but you can create additional frames if you wish.
@xref{Frames}.
When you start Emacs, the main central area of the frame, all except
for the top and bottom and sides, displays the text you are editing.
This area is called @dfn{the window}. At the top there is normally a
@dfn{menu bar} where you can access a series of menus; then there may
be a @dfn{tool bar}, a row of icons that perform editing commands if
you click on them. Below this, the window begins, often with a
@dfn{scroll bar} on one side. Below the window comes the last line of
the frame, a special @dfn{echo area} or @dfn{minibuffer window}, where
prompts appear and you enter information when Emacs asks for it. See
following sections for more information about these special lines.
You can subdivide the window horizontally or vertically to make
multiple text windows, each of which can independently display some
file or text (@pxref{Windows}). In this manual, the word ``window''
refers to the initial large window if not subdivided, or any one of
the multiple windows you have subdivided it into.
At any time, one window is the @dfn{selected window}. On graphical
displays, the selected window normally shows a more prominent cursor
(usually solid and blinking) while other windows show a weaker cursor
(such as a hollow box). Text terminals have just one cursor, so it
always appears in the selected window.
Most Emacs commands implicitly apply to the text in the selected
window; the text in unselected windows is mostly visible for
reference. However, mouse commands generally operate on whatever
window you click them in, whether selected or not. If you use
multiple frames on a graphical display, then giving the input focus to
a particular frame selects a window in that frame.
Each window's last line is a @dfn{mode line}, which describes what
is going on in that window. It appears in different color and/or a ``3D''
box if the terminal supports them; its contents normally begin with
@w{@samp{--:-- @ *scratch*}} when Emacs starts. The mode line
displays status information such as what buffer is being displayed
above it in the window, what major and minor modes are in use, and
whether the buffer contains unsaved changes.
@menu
* Point:: The place in the text where editing commands operate.
* Echo Area:: Short messages appear at the bottom of the screen.
* Mode Line:: Interpreting the mode line.
* Menu Bar:: How to use the menu bar.
@end menu
@node Point
@section Point
@cindex point
@cindex cursor
Within Emacs, the active cursor shows the location at which
editing commands will take effect. This location is called @dfn{point}.
Many Emacs commands move point through the text, so that you can edit at
different places in it. You can also place point by clicking mouse
button 1 (normally the left button).
While the cursor appears to be @emph{on} a character, you should
think of point as @emph{between} two characters; it points @emph{before}
the character that appears under the cursor. For example, if your text
looks like @samp{frob} with the cursor over the @samp{b}, then point is
between the @samp{o} and the @samp{b}. If you insert the character
@samp{!} at that position, the result is @samp{fro!b}, with point
between the @samp{!} and the @samp{b}. Thus, the cursor remains over
the @samp{b}, as before.
Sometimes people speak of ``the cursor'' when they mean ``point,'' or
speak of commands that move point as ``cursor motion'' commands.
If you are editing several files in Emacs, each in its own buffer,
each buffer has its own point location. A buffer that is not
currently displayed remembers its point location in case you display
it again later. When Emacs displays multiple windows, each window has
its own point location. If the same buffer appears in more than one
window, each window has its own point position in that buffer, and (when
possible) its own cursor.
A text-only terminal has just one cursor, in the selected window.
The other windows do not show a cursor, even though they do have their
own position of point. When Emacs updates the screen on a text-only
terminal, it has to put the cursor temporarily at the place the output
goes. This doesn't mean point is there, though. Once display
updating finishes, Emacs puts the cursor where point is.
On graphical displays, Emacs shows a cursor in each window; the
selected window's cursor is solid and blinking, and the other cursors
are just hollow. Thus, the most prominent cursor always shows you the
selected window, on all kinds of terminals.
@xref{Cursor Display}, for customizable variables that control display
of the cursor or cursors.
The term ``point'' comes from the character @samp{.}, which was the
command in TECO (the language in which the original Emacs was written)
for accessing the value now called ``point.''
@node Echo Area
@section The Echo Area
@cindex echo area
The line at the bottom of the frame (below the mode line) is the
@dfn{echo area}. It is used to display small amounts of text for
various purposes.
@dfn{Echoing} means displaying the characters that you type. At the
command line, the operating system normally echoes all your input.
Emacs handles echoing differently.
Single-character commands do not echo in Emacs, and multi-character
commands echo only if you pause while typing them. As soon as you pause
for more than a second in the middle of a command, Emacs echoes all the
characters of the command so far. This is to @dfn{prompt} you for the
rest of the command. Once echoing has started, the rest of the command
echoes immediately as you type it. This behavior is designed to give
confident users fast response, while giving hesitant users maximum
feedback. You can change this behavior by setting a variable
(@pxref{Display Custom}).
@cindex error message in the echo area
If a command cannot do its job, it may display an @dfn{error
message} in the echo area. Error messages are accompanied by beeping
or by flashing the screen. The error also discards any input you have
typed ahead.
Some commands display informative messages in the echo area. These
messages look much like error messages, but they are not announced
with a beep and do not throw away input. Sometimes the message tells
you what the command has done, when this is not obvious from looking
at the text being edited. Sometimes the sole purpose of a command is
to show you a message giving you specific information---for example,
@kbd{C-x =} (hold down @key{CTRL} and type @kbd{x}, then let go of
@key{CTRL} and type @kbd{=}) displays a message describing the
character position of point in the text and its current column in the
window. Commands that take a long time often display messages ending
in @samp{...} while they are working, and add @samp{done} at the end
when they are finished. They may also indicate progress with
percentages.
@cindex @samp{*Messages*} buffer
@cindex saved echo area messages
@cindex messages saved from echo area
Echo-area informative messages are saved in an editor buffer named
@samp{*Messages*}. (We have not explained buffers yet; see
@ref{Buffers}, for more information about them.) If you miss a message
that appears briefly on the screen, you can switch to the
@samp{*Messages*} buffer to see it again. (Successive progress messages
are often collapsed into one in that buffer.)
@vindex message-log-max
The size of @samp{*Messages*} is limited to a certain number of
lines. The variable @code{message-log-max} specifies how many lines.
Once the buffer has that many lines, adding lines at the end deletes lines
from the beginning, to keep the size constant. @xref{Variables}, for
how to set variables such as @code{message-log-max}.
The echo area is also used to display the @dfn{minibuffer}, a window
where you can input arguments to commands, such as the name of a file
to be edited. When the minibuffer is in use, the echo area begins
with a prompt string that usually ends with a colon; also, the cursor
appears in that line because it is the selected window. You can
always get out of the minibuffer by typing @kbd{C-g}.
@xref{Minibuffer}.
@node Mode Line
@section The Mode Line
@cindex mode line
@cindex top level
@c
Each text window's last line is a @dfn{mode line}, which describes
what is going on in that window. The mode line starts and ends with
dashes. When there is only one text window, the mode line appears
right above the echo area; it is the next-to-last line in the frame.
On a text-only terminal, the mode line is in inverse video if the
terminal supports that; on a graphics display, the mode line has a 3D
box appearance to help it stand out. The mode line of the selected
window is highlighted if possible; see @ref{Optional Mode Line}, for
more information.
Normally, the mode line looks like this:
@example
-@var{cs}:@var{ch}@var{R}-@var{fr} @var{buf} @var{pos} @var{line} (@var{major} @var{minor})------
@end example
@noindent
This gives information about the window and the buffer it displays: the
buffer's name, what major and minor modes are in use, whether the
buffer's text has been changed, and how far down the buffer you are
currently looking.
@var{ch} contains two stars @samp{**} if the text in the buffer has
been edited (the buffer is ``modified''), or @samp{--} if the buffer has
not been edited. For a read-only buffer, it is @samp{%*} if the buffer
is modified, and @samp{%%} otherwise.
@var{R} is @samp{@@} if the default-directory for the current buffer
is on a remote machine, or a hyphen otherwise.
@var{fr} gives the selected frame name (@pxref{Frames}). It appears
only on text-only terminals. The initial frame's name is @samp{F1}.
@var{buf} is the name of the window's @dfn{buffer}. Usually this is
the same as the name of a file you are editing. @xref{Buffers}.
The buffer displayed in the selected window (the window with the
cursor) is the @dfn{current buffer}, where editing happens. When a
command's effect applies to ``the buffer,'' we mean it does those
things to the current buffer.
@var{pos} tells you whether there is additional text above the top of
the window, or below the bottom. If your buffer is small and it is all
visible in the window, @var{pos} is @samp{All}. Otherwise, it is
@samp{Top} if you are looking at the beginning of the buffer, @samp{Bot}
if you are looking at the end of the buffer, or @samp{@var{nn}%}, where
@var{nn} is the percentage of the buffer above the top of the window.
With Size Indication mode, you can display the size of the buffer as
well. @xref{Optional Mode Line}.
@var{line} is @samp{L} followed by the current line number of point.
This is present when Line Number mode is enabled (it normally is).
You can display the current column number too, by turning on Column
Number mode. It is not enabled by default because it is somewhat
slower. @xref{Optional Mode Line}.
@var{major} is the name of the @dfn{major mode} in effect in the
buffer. A buffer can only be in one major mode at a time. The major
modes available include Fundamental mode (the least specialized), Text
mode, Lisp mode, C mode, Texinfo mode, and many others. @xref{Major
Modes}, for details of how the modes differ and how to select
them.
Some major modes display additional information after the major mode
name. For example, Rmail buffers display the current message number and
the total number of messages. Compilation buffers and Shell buffers
display the status of the subprocess.
@var{minor} is a list of some of the @dfn{minor modes} that are
turned on at the moment in the window's chosen buffer. For example,
@samp{Fill} means that Auto Fill mode is on. @samp{Abbrev} means that
Word Abbrev mode is on. @samp{Ovwrt} means that Overwrite mode is on.
@xref{Minor Modes}, for more information.
@samp{Narrow} means that the buffer being displayed has editing
restricted to only a portion of its text. (This is not really a minor
mode, but is like one.) @xref{Narrowing}. @samp{Def} means that a
keyboard macro is being defined. @xref{Keyboard Macros}.
In addition, if Emacs is inside a recursive editing level, square
brackets (@samp{[@dots{}]}) appear around the parentheses that
surround the modes. If Emacs is in one recursive editing level within
another, double square brackets appear, and so on. Since recursive
editing levels affect Emacs globally, not just one buffer, the square
brackets appear in every window's mode line or not in any of them.
@xref{Recursive Edit}.@refill
@var{cs} states the coding system used for the file you are editing.
A dash indicates the default state of affairs: no code conversion,
except for end-of-line translation if the file contents call for that.
@samp{=} means no conversion whatsoever. Nontrivial code conversions
are represented by various letters---for example, @samp{1} refers to ISO
Latin-1. @xref{Coding Systems}, for more information.
On a text-only terminal, @var{cs} includes two additional characters
which describe the coding system for keyboard input and the coding
system for terminal output. They come right before the coding system
used for the file you are editing.
If you are using an input method, a string of the form
@samp{@var{i}>} is added to the beginning of @var{cs}; @var{i}
identifies the input method. (Some input methods show @samp{+} or
@samp{@@} instead of @samp{>}.) @xref{Input Methods}.
When multibyte characters are not enabled, @var{cs} does not appear at
all. @xref{Enabling Multibyte}.
@cindex end-of-line conversion, mode-line indication
The colon after @var{cs} changes to another string in some cases.
Emacs uses newline characters to separate lines in the buffer. Some
files use different conventions for separating lines: either
carriage-return linefeed (the MS-DOS convention) or just
carriage-return (the Macintosh convention). If the buffer's file uses
carriage-return linefeed, the colon changes to either a backslash
(@samp{\}) or @samp{(DOS)}, depending on the operating system. If the
file uses just carriage-return, the colon indicator changes to either
a forward slash (@samp{/}) or @samp{(Mac)}. On some systems, Emacs
displays @samp{(Unix)} instead of the colon for files that use newline
as the line separator.
@xref{Optional Mode Line}, to add other handy information to the
mode line, such as the size of the buffer, the current column number
of point, and whether new mail for you has arrived.
The mode line is mouse-sensitive; when you move the mouse across
various parts of it, Emacs displays help text to say what a click in
that place will do. @xref{Mode Line Mouse}.
@node Menu Bar
@section The Menu Bar
@cindex menu bar
Each Emacs frame normally has a @dfn{menu bar} at the top which you
can use to perform common operations. There's no need to list them
here, as you can more easily see them yourself.
@kindex M-`
@kindex F10
@findex tmm-menubar
@findex menu-bar-open
On a graphical display, you can use the mouse to choose a command
from the menu bar. A right-arrow at the end of the menu item means it
leads to a subsidiary menu; @samp{...} at the end means that the
command invoked will read arguments (further input from you) before it
actually does anything.
You can also invoke the first menu bar item by pressing @key{F10} (to run
the command @code{menu-bar-open}). You can then navigate the menus with
the arrow keys. You select an item by pressing @key{RET} and cancel menu
navigation with @key{ESC}.
To view the full command name and documentation for a menu item, type
@kbd{C-h k}, and then select the menu bar with the mouse in the usual
way (@pxref{Key Help}).
On text-only terminals with no mouse, you can use the menu bar by
typing @kbd{M-`} or @key{F10} (these run the command
@code{tmm-menubar}). This lets you select a menu item with the
keyboard. A provisional choice appears in the echo area. You can use
the up and down arrow keys to move through the menu to different
items, and then you can type @key{RET} to select the item.
Each menu item also has an assigned letter or digit which designates
that item; it is usually the initial of some word in the item's name.
This letter or digit is separated from the item name by @samp{=>}. You
can type the item's letter or digit to select the item.
Some of the commands in the menu bar have ordinary key bindings as
well; one such binding is shown in parentheses after the item itself.
@ignore
arch-tag: 104ba40e-d972-4866-a542-a98be94bdf2f
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002,
@c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Sending Mail
@chapter Sending Mail
@cindex sending mail
@cindex mail
@cindex message
To send a message in Emacs, you start by typing a command (@kbd{C-x m})
to select and initialize the @samp{*mail*} buffer. Then you edit the text
and headers of the message in this buffer, and type another command
(@kbd{C-c C-s} or @kbd{C-c C-c}) to send the message.
@table @kbd
@item C-x m
Begin composing a message to send (@code{compose-mail}).
@item C-x 4 m
Likewise, but display the message in another window
(@code{compose-mail-other-window}).
@item C-x 5 m
Likewise, but make a new frame (@code{compose-mail-other-frame}).
@item C-c C-s
In Mail mode, send the message (@code{mail-send}).
@item C-c C-c
Send the message and bury the mail buffer (@code{mail-send-and-exit}).
@end table
@kindex C-x m
@findex compose-mail
@kindex C-x 4 m
@findex compose-mail-other-window
@kindex C-x 5 m
@findex compose-mail-other-frame
The command @kbd{C-x m} (@code{compose-mail}) selects a buffer named
@samp{*mail*} and initializes it with the skeleton of an outgoing
message. @kbd{C-x 4 m} (@code{compose-mail-other-window}) selects the
@samp{*mail*} buffer in a different window, leaving the previous current
buffer visible. @kbd{C-x 5 m} (@code{compose-mail-other-frame}) creates
a new frame to select the @samp{*mail*} buffer.
Because the mail-composition buffer is an ordinary Emacs buffer, you can
switch to other buffers while in the middle of composing mail, and switch
back later (or never). If you use the @kbd{C-x m} command again when you
have been composing another message but have not sent it, you are asked to
confirm before the old message is erased. If you answer @kbd{n}, the
@samp{*mail*} buffer remains selected with its old contents, so you can
finish the old message and send it. @kbd{C-u C-x m} is another way to do
this. Sending the message marks the @samp{*mail*} buffer ``unmodified,''
which avoids the need for confirmation when @kbd{C-x m} is next used.
If you are composing a message in the @samp{*mail*} buffer and want to
send another message before finishing the first, rename the
@samp{*mail*} buffer using @kbd{M-x rename-uniquely} (@pxref{Misc
Buffer}). Then you can use @kbd{C-x m} or its variants described above
to make a new @samp{*mail*} buffer. Once you've done that, you can work
with each mail buffer independently.
@vindex mail-default-directory
The variable @code{mail-default-directory} controls the default
directory for mail buffers, and also says where to put their auto-save
files.
@ignore
@c Commented out because it is not user-oriented;
@c it doesn't say how to do some job. -- rms.
@cindex directory servers
@cindex LDAP
@cindex PH/QI
@cindex names and addresses
There is an interface to directory servers using various protocols such
as LDAP or the CCSO white pages directory system (PH/QI), described in a
separate manual. It may be useful for looking up names and addresses.
@xref{Top,,EUDC, eudc, EUDC Manual}.
@end ignore
@menu
* Format: Mail Format. Format of the mail being composed.
* Headers: Mail Headers. Details of permitted mail header fields.
* Aliases: Mail Aliases. Abbreviating and grouping mail addresses.
* Mode: Mail Mode. Special commands for editing mail being composed.
* Amuse: Mail Amusements. Distracting the NSA; adding fortune messages.
* Methods: Mail Methods. Using alternative mail-composition methods.
@end menu
@node Mail Format
@section The Format of the Mail Buffer
In addition to the @dfn{text} or @dfn{body}, a message has @dfn{header
fields} which say who sent it, when, to whom, why, and so on. Some
header fields, such as @samp{Date} and @samp{Sender}, are created
automatically when you send the message. Others, such as the recipient
names, must be specified by you in order to send the message properly.
In the mail buffer, you can insert and edit header fields using
ordinary editing commands. Mail mode provides a commands to help you
edit some header fields, and some are preinitialized in the buffer
automatically when appropriate.
The line in the buffer that says
@example
--text follows this line--
@end example
@noindent
is a special delimiter that separates the headers you have specified from
the text. Whatever follows this line is the text of the message; the
headers precede it. The delimiter line itself does not appear in the
message actually sent. The text used for the delimiter line is controlled
by the variable @code{mail-header-separator}.
Here is an example of what the headers and text in the mail buffer
might look like.
@example
To: gnu@@gnu.org
CC: lungfish@@spam.org, byob@@spam.org
Subject: The Emacs Manual
--Text follows this line--
Please ignore this message.
@end example
@node Mail Headers
@section Mail Header Fields
@cindex headers (of mail message)
A header field in the mail buffer starts with a field name at the
beginning of a line, terminated by a colon. Upper and lower case are
equivalent in field names (and in mailing addresses also). After the
colon and optional whitespace comes the contents of the field.
You can use any name you like for a header field, but normally people
use only standard field names with accepted meanings. Here is a table
of fields commonly used in outgoing messages.
@table @samp
@item To
This field contains the mailing addresses to which the message is
addressed. If you list more than one address, use commas, not spaces,
to separate them.
@item Subject
The contents of the @samp{Subject} field should be a piece of text
that says what the message is about. The reason @samp{Subject} fields
are useful is that most mail-reading programs can provide a summary of
messages, listing the subject of each message but not its text.
@item CC
This field contains additional mailing addresses to send the message to,
like @samp{To} except that these readers should not regard the message
as directed at them.
@item BCC
This field contains additional mailing addresses to send the message to,
which should not appear in the header of the message actually sent.
Copies sent this way are called @dfn{blind carbon copies}.
@vindex mail-self-blind
@cindex copy of every outgoing message
To send a blind carbon copy of every outgoing message to yourself, set
the variable @code{mail-self-blind} to @code{t}. To send a blind carbon
copy of every message to some other @var{address}, set the variable
@code{mail-default-headers} to @code{"Bcc: @var{address}\n"}.
@item FCC
This field contains the name of one file and directs Emacs to append a
copy of the message to that file when you send the message. If the file
is in Rmail format, Emacs writes the message in Rmail format; otherwise,
Emacs writes the message in system mail file format. To specify
more than one file, use several @samp{FCC} fields, with one file
name in each field.
@vindex mail-archive-file-name
To put a fixed file name in the @samp{FCC} field each time you start
editing an outgoing message, set the variable
@code{mail-archive-file-name} to that file name. Unless you remove the
@samp{FCC} field before sending, the message will be written into that
file when it is sent.
@item From
Use the @samp{From} field to say who you are, when the account you are
using to send the mail is not your own. The contents of the @samp{From}
field should be a valid mailing address, since replies will normally go
there. If you don't specify the @samp{From} field yourself, Emacs uses
the value of @code{user-mail-address} as the default.
@item Reply-to
Use this field to direct replies to a different address. Most
mail-reading programs (including Rmail) automatically send replies to
the @samp{Reply-to} address in preference to the @samp{From} address.
By adding a @samp{Reply-to} field to your header, you can work around
any problems your @samp{From} address may cause for replies.
@cindex @env{REPLYTO} environment variable
@vindex mail-default-reply-to
To put a fixed @samp{Reply-to} address into every outgoing message, set
the variable @code{mail-default-reply-to} to that address (as a string).
Then @code{mail} initializes the message with a @samp{Reply-to} field as
specified. You can delete or alter that header field before you send
the message, if you wish. When Emacs starts up, if the environment
variable @env{REPLYTO} is set, @code{mail-default-reply-to} is
initialized from that environment variable.
@item In-reply-to
This field contains a piece of text describing the message you are
replying to. Some mail systems can use this information to correlate
related pieces of mail. Normally this field is filled in by Rmail
when you reply to a message in Rmail, and you never need to
think about it (@pxref{Rmail}).
@item References
This field lists the message IDs of related previous messages. Rmail
sets up this field automatically when you reply to a message.
@end table
The @samp{To}, @samp{CC}, and @samp{BCC} header fields can appear
any number of times, and each such header field can contain multiple
addresses, separated by commas. This way, you can specify any number
of places to send the message. These fields can also have
continuation lines: one or more lines starting with whitespace,
following the starting line of the field, are considered part of the
field. Here's an example of a @samp{To} field with a continuation
line:
@example
@group
To: foo@@here.net, this@@there.net,
me@@gnu.cambridge.mass.usa.earth.spiral3281
@end group
@end example
@vindex mail-from-style
When you send the message, if you didn't write a @samp{From} field
yourself, Emacs puts in one for you. The variable
@code{mail-from-style} controls the format:
@table @code
@item nil
Use just the email address, as in @samp{king@@grassland.com}.
@item parens
Use both email address and full name, as in:@*
@samp{king@@grassland.com (Elvis Parsley)}.
@item angles
Use both email address and full name, as in:@*
@samp{Elvis Parsley <king@@grassland.com>}.
@item system-default
Allow the system to insert the @samp{From} field.
@end table
@vindex mail-default-headers
You can direct Emacs to insert certain default headers into the
outgoing message by setting the variable @code{mail-default-headers}
to a string. Then @code{C-x m} inserts this string into the message
headers. If the default header fields are not appropriate for a
particular message, edit them as appropriate before sending the
message.
@node Mail Aliases
@section Mail Aliases
@cindex mail aliases
@cindex @file{.mailrc} file
@cindex mailrc file
You can define @dfn{mail aliases} in a file named @file{~/.mailrc}.
These are short mnemonic names which stand for mail addresses or groups of
mail addresses. Like many other mail programs, Emacs expands aliases
when they occur in the @samp{To}, @samp{From}, @samp{CC}, @samp{BCC}, and
@samp{Reply-to} fields, plus their @samp{Resent-} variants.
To define an alias in @file{~/.mailrc}, write a line in the following
format:
@example
alias @var{shortaddress} @var{fulladdresses}
@end example
@noindent
Here @var{fulladdresses} stands for one or more mail addresses for
@var{shortaddress} to expand into. Separate multiple addresses with
spaces; if an address contains a space, quote the whole address with a
pair of double-quotes.
For instance, to make @code{maingnu} stand for
@code{gnu@@gnu.org} plus a local address of your own, put in
this line:@refill
@example
alias maingnu gnu@@gnu.org local-gnu
@end example
@noindent
Addresses specified in this way should use doublequotes around an
entire address when the address contains spaces. But you need not
include doublequotes around parts of the address, such as the person's
full name. Emacs puts them in if they are needed. For example,
@example
alias chief-torturer "George W. Bush <bush@@whitehouse.gov>"
@end example
@noindent
is correct in @samp{.mailrc}. Emacs will insert the address as
@samp{"George W. Bush" <bush@@whitehouse.gov>}.
Emacs also recognizes ``include'' commands in @samp{.mailrc} files.
They look like this:
@example
source @var{filename}
@end example
@noindent
The file @file{~/.mailrc} is used primarily by other mail-reading
programs; it can contain various other commands. Emacs ignores
everything in it except for alias definitions and include commands.
@findex define-mail-alias
Another way to define a mail alias, within Emacs alone, is with the
@code{define-mail-alias} command. It prompts for the alias and then the
full address. You can use it to define aliases in your @file{.emacs}
file, like this:
@example
(define-mail-alias "maingnu" "gnu@@gnu.org")
@end example
@vindex mail-aliases
@code{define-mail-alias} records aliases by adding them to a
variable named @code{mail-aliases}. If you are comfortable with
manipulating Lisp lists, you can set @code{mail-aliases} directly. The
initial value of @code{mail-aliases} is @code{t}, which means that
Emacs should read @file{.mailrc} to get the proper value.
@vindex mail-personal-alias-file
You can specify a different file name to use instead of
@file{~/.mailrc} by setting the variable
@code{mail-personal-alias-file}.
@findex expand-mail-aliases
Normally, Emacs expands aliases when you send the message. You do not
need to expand mail aliases before sending the message, but you can
expand them if you want to see where the mail will actually go. To do
this, use the command @kbd{M-x expand-mail-aliases}; it expands all mail
aliases currently present in the mail headers that hold addresses.
If you like, you can have mail aliases expand as abbrevs, as soon as
you type them in (@pxref{Abbrevs}). To enable this feature, execute the
following:
@example
(add-hook 'mail-mode-hook 'mail-abbrevs-setup)
@end example
@noindent
@findex define-mail-abbrev
@vindex mail-abbrevs
This can go in your @file{.emacs} file. @xref{Hooks}. If you use this
feature, you must use @code{define-mail-abbrev} instead of
@code{define-mail-alias}; the latter does not work with this package.
Note that the mail abbreviation package uses the variable
@code{mail-abbrevs} instead of @code{mail-aliases}, and that all alias
names are converted to lower case.
@kindex C-c C-a @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-interactive-insert-alias
The mail abbreviation package also provides the @kbd{C-c C-a}
(@code{mail-interactive-insert-alias}) command, which reads an alias
name (with completion) and inserts its definition at point. This is
useful when editing the message text itself or a header field such as
@samp{Subject} in which Emacs does not normally expand aliases.
Note that abbrevs expand only if you insert a word-separator character
afterward. However, you can rebind @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{M->} to cause
expansion as well. Here's how to do that:
@smallexample
(add-hook 'mail-mode-hook
(lambda ()
(define-key
mail-mode-map [remap next-line] 'mail-abbrev-next-line)
(define-key
mail-mode-map [remap end-of-buffer] 'mail-abbrev-end-of-buffer)))
@end smallexample
@node Mail Mode
@section Mail Mode
@cindex Mail mode
@cindex mode, Mail
The major mode used in the mail buffer is Mail mode, which is much
like Text mode except that various special commands are provided on the
@kbd{C-c} prefix. These commands all have to do specifically with
editing or sending the message. In addition, Mail mode defines the
character @samp{%} as a word separator; this is helpful for using the
word commands to edit mail addresses.
Mail mode is normally used in buffers set up automatically by the
@code{mail} command and related commands. However, you can also switch
to Mail mode in a file-visiting buffer. This is a useful thing to do if
you have saved the text of a draft message in a file.
@menu
* Mail Sending:: Commands to send the message.
* Header Editing:: Commands to move to header fields and edit them.
* Citing Mail:: Copying all or part of a message you are replying to.
* Mail Mode Misc:: Spell checking, signatures, etc.
@end menu
@node Mail Sending
@subsection Mail Sending
Mail mode has two commands for sending the message you have been
editing:
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-s
Send the message, and leave the mail buffer selected (@code{mail-send}).
@item C-c C-c
Send the message, and select some other buffer (@code{mail-send-and-exit}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-s @r{(Mail mode)}
@kindex C-c C-c @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-send
@findex mail-send-and-exit
@kbd{C-c C-s} (@code{mail-send}) sends the message and marks the mail
buffer unmodified, but leaves that buffer selected so that you can
modify the message (perhaps with new recipients) and send it again.
@kbd{C-c C-c} (@code{mail-send-and-exit}) sends and then deletes the
window or switches to another buffer. It puts the mail buffer at the
lowest priority for reselection by default, since you are finished with
using it. This is the usual way to send the message.
In a file-visiting buffer, sending the message does not clear the
modified flag, because only saving the file should do that. Also, you
don't get a warning if you try to send the same message twice.
@c This is indexed in mule.texi, node "Recognize Coding".
@c @vindex sendmail-coding-system
When you send a message that contains non-@acronym{ASCII} characters, they need
to be encoded with a coding system (@pxref{Coding Systems}). Usually
the coding system is specified automatically by your chosen language
environment (@pxref{Language Environments}). You can explicitly specify
the coding system for outgoing mail by setting the variable
@code{sendmail-coding-system} (@pxref{Recognize Coding}).
If the coding system thus determined does not handle the characters in
a particular message, Emacs asks you to select the coding system to use,
showing a list of possible coding systems.
@cindex SMTP
@cindex Feedmail
@cindex Sendmail
@vindex send-mail-function
The variable @code{send-mail-function} controls how the default mail
user agent sends mail. It should be set to a function. The default
is @code{sendmail-send-it}, which delivers mail using the Sendmail
installation on the local host. To send mail through a SMTP server,
set it to @code{smtpmail-send-it} and set up the Emacs SMTP library
(@pxref{Top,,Emacs SMTP Library, smtpmail, Sending mail via SMTP}). A
third option is @code{feedmail-send-it}, see the commentary section of
the @file{feedmail.el} package for more information.
@node Header Editing
@subsection Mail Header Editing
Mail mode provides special commands to move to particular header
fields and to complete addresses in headers.
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-f C-t
Move to the @samp{To} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-to}).
@item C-c C-f C-s
Move to the @samp{Subject} header field, creating one if there is
none (@code{mail-subject}).
@item C-c C-f C-c
Move to the @samp{CC} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-cc}).
@item C-c C-f C-b
Move to the @samp{BCC} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-bcc}).
@item C-c C-f C-f
Move to the @samp{FCC} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-fcc}).
@item M-@key{TAB}
Complete a mailing address (@code{mail-complete}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-f C-t @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-to
@kindex C-c C-f C-s @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-subject
@kindex C-c C-f C-c @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-cc
@kindex C-c C-f C-b @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-bcc
@kindex C-c C-f C-f @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-fcc
There are five commands to move point to particular header fields, all
based on the prefix @kbd{C-c C-f} (@samp{C-f} is for ``field''). They
are listed in the table above. If the field in question does not exist,
these commands create one. We provide special motion commands for these
particular fields because they are the fields users most often want to
edit.
@findex mail-complete
@kindex M-TAB @r{(Mail mode)}
While editing a header field that contains mailing addresses, such
as @samp{To:}, @samp{CC:} and @samp{BCC:}, you can complete a mailing
address by typing @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} (@code{mail-complete}). It
inserts the full name corresponding to the address, if it can
determine the full name. The variable @code{mail-complete-style}
controls whether to insert the full name, and what style to use, as in
@code{mail-from-style} (@pxref{Mail Headers}). (If your window
manager defines @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} to switch windows, you can type
@kbd{@key{ESC} @key{TAB}} or @kbd{C-M-i}.)
For completion purposes, the valid mailing addresses are taken to be
the local users' names plus your personal mail aliases. You can
specify additional sources of valid addresses; see the customization
group @samp{mailalias} to see the variables for customizing this
feature (@pxref{Customization Groups}).
If you type @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} in the body of the message,
@code{mail-complete} invokes @code{ispell-complete-word}, as in Text
mode.
@node Citing Mail
@subsection Citing Mail
@cindex citing mail
Mail mode also has commands for yanking or @dfn{citing} all or part of
a message that you are replying to. These commands are active only when
you started sending a message using an Rmail command.
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-y
Yank the selected message from Rmail (@code{mail-yank-original}).
@item C-c C-r
Yank the region from the Rmail buffer (@code{mail-yank-region}).
@item C-c C-q
Fill each paragraph cited from another message
(@code{mail-fill-yanked-message}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-y @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-yank-original
When mail sending is invoked from the Rmail mail reader using an Rmail
command, @kbd{C-c C-y} can be used inside the mail buffer to insert
the text of the message you are replying to. Normally it indents each line
of that message three spaces and eliminates most header fields. A numeric
argument specifies the number of spaces to indent. An argument of just
@kbd{C-u} says not to indent at all and not to eliminate anything.
@kbd{C-c C-y} always uses the current message from the Rmail buffer,
so you can insert several old messages by selecting one in Rmail,
switching to @samp{*mail*} and yanking it, then switching back to
Rmail to select another.
@vindex mail-yank-prefix
You can specify the text for @kbd{C-c C-y} to insert at the beginning
of each line: set @code{mail-yank-prefix} to the desired string. (A
value of @code{nil} means to use indentation; this is the default.)
However, @kbd{C-u C-c C-y} never adds anything at the beginning of the
inserted lines, regardless of the value of @code{mail-yank-prefix}.
@kindex C-c C-r @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-yank-region
To yank just a part of an incoming message, set the region in Rmail to
the part you want; then go to the @samp{*Mail*} message and type
@kbd{C-c C-r} (@code{mail-yank-region}). Each line that is copied is
indented or prefixed according to @code{mail-yank-prefix}.
@kindex C-c C-q @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-fill-yanked-message
After using @kbd{C-c C-y} or @kbd{C-c C-r}, you can type @kbd{C-c C-q}
(@code{mail-fill-yanked-message}) to fill the paragraphs of the yanked
old message or messages. One use of @kbd{C-c C-q} fills all such
paragraphs, each one individually. To fill a single paragraph of the
quoted message, use @kbd{M-q}. If filling does not automatically
handle the type of citation prefix you use, try setting the fill prefix
explicitly. @xref{Filling}.
@node Mail Mode Misc
@subsection Mail Mode Miscellany
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-t
Move to the beginning of the message body text (@code{mail-text}).
@item C-c C-w
Insert the file @file{~/.signature} at the end of the message text
(@code{mail-signature}).
@item C-c C-i @var{file} @key{RET}
Insert the contents of @var{file} at the end of the outgoing message
(@code{mail-attach-file}).
@item M-x ispell-message
Perform spelling correction on the message text, but not on citations from
other messages.
@end table
@kindex C-c C-t @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-text
@kbd{C-c C-t} (@code{mail-text}) moves point to just after the header
separator line---that is, to the beginning of the message body text.
@kindex C-c C-w @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-signature
@vindex mail-signature
@kbd{C-c C-w} (@code{mail-signature}) adds a standard piece of text at
the end of the message to say more about who you are. The text comes
from the file @file{~/.signature} in your home directory. To insert
your signature automatically, set the variable @code{mail-signature} to
@code{t}; after that, starting a mail message automatically inserts the
contents of your @file{~/.signature} file. If you want to omit your
signature from a particular message, delete it from the buffer before
you send the message.
You can also set @code{mail-signature} to a string; then that string
is inserted automatically as your signature when you start editing a
message to send. If you set it to some other Lisp expression, the
expression is evaluated each time, and its value (which should be a
string) specifies the signature.
@findex ispell-message
You can do spelling correction on the message text you have written
with the command @kbd{M-x ispell-message}. If you have yanked an
incoming message into the outgoing draft, this command skips what was
yanked, but it checks the text that you yourself inserted. (It looks
for indentation or @code{mail-yank-prefix} to distinguish the cited
lines from your input.) @xref{Spelling}.
@kindex C-c C-i @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-attach-file
To include a file in the outgoing message, you can use @kbd{C-x i},
the usual command to insert a file in the current buffer. But it is
often more convenient to use a special command, @kbd{C-c C-i}
(@code{mail-attach-file}). This command inserts the file contents at
the end of the buffer, after your signature if any, with a delimiter
line that includes the file name. Note that this is not a MIME
attachment.
@vindex mail-mode-hook
@vindex mail-setup-hook
Turning on Mail mode (which @kbd{C-x m} does automatically) runs the
normal hooks @code{text-mode-hook} and @code{mail-mode-hook}.
Initializing a new outgoing message runs the normal hook
@code{mail-setup-hook}; if you want to add special fields to your mail
header or make other changes to the appearance of the mail buffer, use
that hook. @xref{Hooks}.
The main difference between these hooks is just when they are
invoked. Whenever you type @kbd{M-x mail}, @code{mail-mode-hook} runs
as soon as the @samp{*mail*} buffer is created. Then the
@code{mail-setup} function inserts the default contents of the buffer.
After these default contents are inserted, @code{mail-setup-hook} runs.
@node Mail Amusements
@section Mail Amusements
@findex spook
@cindex NSA
@kbd{M-x spook} adds a line of randomly chosen keywords to an outgoing
mail message. The keywords are chosen from a list of words that suggest
you are discussing something subversive.
The idea behind this feature is the suspicion that the
NSA@footnote{The US National Security Agency.} snoops on
all electronic mail messages that contain keywords suggesting they might
find them interesting. (The NSA says they don't, but that's what they
@emph{would} say.) The idea is that if lots of people add suspicious
words to their messages, the NSA will get so busy with spurious input
that they will have to give up reading it all.
Here's how to insert spook keywords automatically whenever you start
entering an outgoing message:
@example
(add-hook 'mail-setup-hook 'spook)
@end example
Whether or not this confuses the NSA, it at least amuses people.
@findex fortune-to-signature
@cindex fortune cookies
You can use the @code{fortune} program to put a ``fortune cookie''
message into outgoing mail. To do this, add
@code{fortune-to-signature} to @code{mail-setup-hook}:
@example
(add-hook 'mail-setup-hook 'fortune-to-signature)
@end example
@node Mail Methods
@section Mail-Composition Methods
@cindex mail-composition methods
@cindex MH mail interface
@cindex Message mode for sending mail
In this chapter we have described the usual Emacs mode for editing
and sending mail---Mail mode. Emacs has alternative facilities for
editing and sending mail, including
MH-E and Message mode, not documented in this manual.
@xref{Top,,MH-E,mh-e, The Emacs Interface to MH}. @xref{Top,,Message,message,
Message Manual}. You can choose any of them as your preferred method.
The commands @code{C-x m}, @code{C-x 4 m} and @code{C-x 5 m} use
whichever agent you have specified, as do various other Emacs commands
and facilities that send mail.
@vindex mail-user-agent
To specify your mail-composition method, customize the variable
@code{mail-user-agent}. Currently legitimate values include
@code{sendmail-user-agent} (Mail mode), @code{mh-e-user-agent},
@code{message-user-agent} and @code{gnus-user-agent}.
If you select a different mail-composition method, the information
in this chapter about the @samp{*mail*} buffer and Mail mode does not
apply; the other methods use a different format of text in a different
buffer, and their commands are different as well.
@ignore
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@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included in emacs-xtra.texi when producing the printed
@c version.
@iftex
@node Advanced VC Usage
@section Advanced VC Usage
Commonly used features of Emacs' version control (VC) support are
described in the main Emacs manual (@pxref{Version Control,,,emacs,
the Emacs Manual}). This chapter describes more advanced VC usage.
@menu
* VC Dired Mode:: Listing files managed by version control.
* VC Dired Commands:: Commands to use in a VC Dired buffer.
* Remote Repositories:: Efficient access to remote CVS servers.
* Snapshots:: Sets of file versions treated as a unit.
* Miscellaneous VC:: Various other commands and features of VC.
* Customizing VC:: Variables that change VC's behavior.
@end menu
@end iftex
@iftex
@include vc1-xtra.texi
@include vc2-xtra.texi
@end iftex
@ignore
arch-tag: 11a18d0e-1baf-49da-8e38-f61195ae4dc3
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in vc-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node VC Dired Mode
@subsection Dired under VC
@cindex PCL-CVS
@pindex cvs
@cindex CVS Dired Mode
The VC Dired Mode described here works with all the version control
systems that VC supports. Another more powerful facility, designed
specifically for CVS, is called PCL-CVS. @xref{Top, , About PCL-CVS,
pcl-cvs, PCL-CVS --- The Emacs Front-End to CVS}.
@kindex C-x v d
@findex vc-directory
When you are working on a large program, it is often useful to find
out which files have changed within an entire directory tree, or to view
the status of all files under version control at once, and to perform
version control operations on collections of files. You can use the
command @kbd{C-x v d} (@code{vc-directory}) to make a directory listing
that includes only files relevant for version control.
@vindex vc-dired-terse-display
@kbd{C-x v d} creates a buffer which uses VC Dired Mode. This looks
much like an ordinary Dired buffer
@iftex
(@pxref{Dired,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual});
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Dired});
@end ifnottex
however, normally it shows only the noteworthy files (those locked or
not up-to-date). This is called @dfn{terse display}. If you set the
variable @code{vc-dired-terse-display} to @code{nil}, then VC Dired
shows all relevant files---those managed under version control, plus
all subdirectories (@dfn{full display}). The command @kbd{v t} in a
VC Dired buffer toggles between terse display and full display
(@pxref{VC Dired Commands}).
@vindex vc-dired-recurse
By default, VC Dired produces a recursive listing of noteworthy or
relevant files at or below the given directory. You can change this by
setting the variable @code{vc-dired-recurse} to @code{nil}; then VC
Dired shows only the files in the given directory.
The line for an individual file shows the version control state in the
place of the hard link count, owner, group, and size of the file. If
the file is unmodified, in sync with the master file, the version
control state shown is blank. Otherwise it consists of text in
parentheses. Under RCS and SCCS, the name of the user locking the file
is shown; under CVS, an abbreviated version of the @samp{cvs status}
output is used. Here is an example using RCS:
@smallexample
@group
/home/jim/project:
-rw-r--r-- (jim) Apr 2 23:39 file1
-r--r--r-- Apr 5 20:21 file2
@end group
@end smallexample
@noindent
The files @samp{file1} and @samp{file2} are under version control,
@samp{file1} is locked by user jim, and @samp{file2} is unlocked.
Here is an example using CVS:
@smallexample
@group
/home/joe/develop:
-rw-r--r-- (modified) Aug 2 1997 file1.c
-rw-r--r-- Apr 4 20:09 file2.c
-rw-r--r-- (merge) Sep 13 1996 file3.c
@end group
@end smallexample
Here @samp{file1.c} is modified with respect to the repository, and
@samp{file2.c} is not. @samp{file3.c} is modified, but other changes
have also been checked in to the repository---you need to merge them
with the work file before you can check it in.
@vindex vc-stay-local
@vindex vc-cvs-stay-local
In the above, if the repository were on a remote machine, VC would
only contact it when the variable @code{vc-stay-local} (or
@code{vc-cvs-stay-local}) is nil (@pxref{CVS Options}). This is
because access to the repository may be slow, or you may be working
offline and not have access to the repository at all. As a
consequence, VC would not be able to tell you that @samp{file3.c} is
in the ``merge'' state; you would learn that only when you try to
check-in your modified copy of the file, or use a command such as
@kbd{C-x v m}.
In practice, this is not a problem because CVS handles this case
consistently whenever it arises. In VC, you'll simply get prompted to
merge the remote changes into your work file first. The benefits of
less network communication usually outweigh the disadvantage of not
seeing remote changes immediately.
@vindex vc-directory-exclusion-list
When VC Dired displays subdirectories (in the ``full'' display mode),
it omits some that should never contain any files under version control.
By default, this includes Version Control subdirectories such as
@samp{RCS} and @samp{CVS}; you can customize this by setting the
variable @code{vc-directory-exclusion-list}.
You can fine-tune VC Dired's format by typing @kbd{C-u C-x v d}---as in
ordinary Dired, that allows you to specify additional switches for the
@samp{ls} command.
@node VC Dired Commands
@subsection VC Dired Commands
All the usual Dired commands work normally in VC Dired mode, except
for @kbd{v}, which is redefined as the version control prefix. You can
invoke VC commands such as @code{vc-diff} and @code{vc-print-log} by
typing @kbd{v =}, or @kbd{v l}, and so on. Most of these commands apply
to the file name on the current line.
The command @kbd{v v} (@code{vc-next-action}) operates on all the
marked files, so that you can lock or check in several files at once.
If it operates on more than one file, it handles each file according to
its current state; thus, it might lock one file, but check in another
file. This could be confusing; it is up to you to avoid confusing
behavior by marking a set of files that are in a similar state. If no
files are marked, @kbd{v v} operates on the file in the current line.
If any files call for check-in, @kbd{v v} reads a single log entry,
then uses it for all the files being checked in. This is convenient for
registering or checking in several files at once, as part of the same
change.
@findex vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode
@findex vc-dired-mark-locked
You can toggle between terse display (only locked files, or files not
up-to-date) and full display at any time by typing @kbd{v t}
(@code{vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode}). There is also a special command
@kbd{* l} (@code{vc-dired-mark-locked}), which marks all files currently
locked (or, with CVS, all files not up-to-date). Thus, typing @kbd{* l
t k} is another way to delete from the buffer all files except those
currently locked.
@ignore
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@c
@c This file is included either in vc-xtra.texi (when producing the
@c printed version) or in the main Emacs manual (for the on-line version).
@node Remote Repositories
@subsection Remote Repositories
@cindex remote repositories (CVS)
A common way of using CVS is to set up a central CVS repository on
some Internet host, then have each developer check out a personal
working copy of the files on his local machine. Committing changes to
the repository, and picking up changes from other users into one's own
working area, then works by direct interactions with the CVS server.
One difficulty is that access to the CVS server is often slow, and
that developers might need to work off-line as well. VC is designed
to reduce the amount of network interaction necessary.
@menu
* Version Backups:: Keeping local copies of repository versions.
* Local Version Control:: Using another version system for local editing.
@end menu
@node Version Backups
@subsubsection Version Backups
@cindex version backups
@cindex automatic version backups
When VC sees that the CVS repository for a file is on a remote
machine, it automatically makes local backups of unmodified versions
of the file---@dfn{automatic version backups}. This means that you
can compare the file to the repository version (@kbd{C-x v =}), or
revert to that version (@kbd{C-x v u}), without any network
interactions.
The local copy of the unmodified file is called a @dfn{version
backup} to indicate that it corresponds exactly to a version that is
stored in the repository. Note that version backups are not the same
as ordinary Emacs backup files
@iftex
(@pxref{Backup,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Backup}).
@end ifnottex
But they follow a similar naming convention.
For a file that comes from a remote CVS repository, VC makes a
version backup whenever you save the first changes to the file, and
removes it after you have committed your modified version to the
repository. You can disable the making of automatic version backups by
setting @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} to @code{nil} (@pxref{CVS Options}).
@cindex manual version backups
The name of the automatic version backup for version @var{version}
of file @var{file} is @code{@var{file}.~@var{version}.~}. This is
almost the same as the name used by @kbd{C-x v ~}
@iftex
(@pxref{Old Versions,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}),
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Old Versions}),
@end ifnottex
the only difference being the additional dot (@samp{.}) after the
version number. This similarity is intentional, because both kinds of
files store the same kind of information. The file made by @kbd{C-x v
~} acts as a @dfn{manual version backup}.
All the VC commands that operate on old versions of a file can use
both kinds of version backups. For instance, @kbd{C-x v ~} uses
either an automatic or a manual version backup, if possible, to get
the contents of the version you request. Likewise, @kbd{C-x v =} and
@kbd{C-x v u} use either an automatic or a manual version backup, if
one of them exists, to get the contents of a version to compare or
revert to. If you changed a file outside of Emacs, so that no
automatic version backup was created for the previous text, you can
create a manual backup of that version using @kbd{C-x v ~}, and thus
obtain the benefit of the local copy for Emacs commands.
The only difference in Emacs's handling of manual and automatic
version backups, once they exist, is that Emacs deletes automatic
version backups when you commit to the repository. By contrast,
manual version backups remain until you delete them.
@node Local Version Control
@subsubsection Local Version Control
@cindex local version control
@cindex local back end (version control)
When you make many changes to a file that comes from a remote
repository, it can be convenient to have version control on your local
machine as well. You can then record intermediate versions, revert to
a previous state, etc., before you actually commit your changes to the
remote server.
VC lets you do this by putting a file under a second, local version
control system, so that the file is effectively registered in two
systems at the same time. For the description here, we will assume
that the remote system is CVS, and you use RCS locally, although the
mechanism works with any combination of version control systems
(@dfn{back ends}).
To make it work with other back ends, you must make sure that the
``more local'' back end comes before the ``more remote'' back end in
the setting of @code{vc-handled-backends} (@pxref{Customizing VC}). By
default, this variable is set up so that you can use remote CVS and
local RCS as described here.
To start using local RCS for a file that comes from a remote CVS
server, you must @emph{register the file in RCS}, by typing @kbd{C-u
C-x v v rcs @key{RET}}. (In other words, use @code{vc-next-action} with a
prefix argument, and specify RCS as the back end.)
You can do this at any time; it does not matter whether you have
already modified the file with respect to the version in the CVS
repository. If possible, VC tries to make the RCS master start with
the unmodified repository version, then checks in any local changes
as a new version. This works if you have not made any changes yet, or
if the unmodified repository version exists locally as a version
backup (@pxref{Version Backups}). If the unmodified version is not
available locally, the RCS master starts with the modified version;
the only drawback to this is that you cannot compare your changes
locally to what is stored in the repository.
The version number of the RCS master is derived from the current CVS
version, starting a branch from it. For example, if the current CVS
version is 1.23, the local RCS branch will be 1.23.1. Version 1.23 in
the RCS master will be identical to version 1.23 under CVS; your first
changes are checked in as 1.23.1.1. (If the unmodified file is not
available locally, VC will check in the modified file twice, both as
1.23 and 1.23.1.1, to make the revision numbers consistent.)
If you do not use locking under CVS (the default), locking is also
disabled for RCS, so that editing under RCS works exactly as under
CVS.
When you are done with local editing, you can commit the final version
back to the CVS repository by typing @kbd{C-u C-x v v cvs @key{RET}}.
This initializes the log entry buffer
@iftex
(@pxref{Log Buffer,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual})
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Log Buffer})
@end ifnottex
to contain all the log entries you have recorded in the RCS master;
you can edit them as you wish, and then commit in CVS by typing
@kbd{C-c C-c}. If the commit is successful, VC removes the RCS
master, so that the file is once again registered under CVS only.
(The RCS master is not actually deleted, just renamed by appending
@samp{~} to the name, so that you can refer to it later if you wish.)
While using local RCS, you can pick up recent changes from the CVS
repository into your local file, or commit some of your changes back
to CVS, without terminating local RCS version control. To do this,
switch to the CVS back end temporarily, with the @kbd{C-x v b} command:
@table @kbd
@item C-x v b
Switch to another back end that the current file is registered
under (@code{vc-switch-backend}).
@item C-u C-x v b @var{backend} @key{RET}
Switch to @var{backend} for the current file.
@end table
@kindex C-x v b
@findex vc-switch-backend
@kbd{C-x v b} does not change the buffer contents, or any files; it
only changes VC's perspective on how to handle the file. Any
subsequent VC commands for that file will operate on the back end that
is currently selected.
If the current file is registered in more than one back end, typing
@kbd{C-x v b} ``cycles'' through all of these back ends. With a
prefix argument, it asks for the back end to use in the minibuffer.
Thus, if you are using local RCS, and you want to pick up some recent
changes in the file from remote CVS, first visit the file, then type
@kbd{C-x v b} to switch to CVS, and finally use @kbd{C-x v m
@key{RET}} to merge the news
@iftex
(@pxref{Merging,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Merging}).
@end ifnottex
You can then switch back to RCS by typing @kbd{C-x v b} again, and
continue to edit locally.
But if you do this, the revision numbers in the RCS master no longer
correspond to those of CVS. Technically, this is not a problem, but
it can become difficult to keep track of what is in the CVS repository
and what is not. So we suggest that you return from time to time to
CVS-only operation, by committing your local changes back to the
repository using @kbd{C-u C-x v v cvs @key{RET}}.
@node Snapshots
@subsection Snapshots
@cindex snapshots and version control
A @dfn{snapshot} is a named set of file versions (one for each
registered file) that you can treat as a unit. One important kind of
snapshot is a @dfn{release}, a (theoretically) stable version of the
system that is ready for distribution to users.
@menu
* Making Snapshots:: The snapshot facilities.
* Snapshot Caveats:: Things to be careful of when using snapshots.
@end menu
@node Making Snapshots
@subsubsection Making and Using Snapshots
There are two basic commands for snapshots; one makes a
snapshot with a given name, the other retrieves a named snapshot.
@table @code
@kindex C-x v s
@findex vc-create-snapshot
@item C-x v s @var{name} @key{RET}
Define the last saved versions of every registered file in or under the
current directory as a snapshot named @var{name}
(@code{vc-create-snapshot}).
@kindex C-x v r
@findex vc-retrieve-snapshot
@item C-x v r @var{name} @key{RET}
For all registered files at or below the current directory level, select
whatever versions correspond to the snapshot @var{name}
(@code{vc-retrieve-snapshot}).
This command reports an error if any files are locked at or below the
current directory, without changing anything; this is to avoid
overwriting work in progress.
@end table
A snapshot uses a very small amount of resources---just enough to record
the list of file names and which version belongs to the snapshot. Thus,
you need not hesitate to create snapshots whenever they are useful.
You can give a snapshot name as an argument to @kbd{C-x v =} or
@kbd{C-x v ~}
@iftex
(@pxref{Old Versions,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Old Versions}).
@end ifnottex
Thus, you can use it to compare a snapshot against the current files,
or two snapshots against each other, or a snapshot against a named
version.
@node Snapshot Caveats
@subsubsection Snapshot Caveats
@cindex named configurations (RCS)
VC's snapshot facilities are modeled on RCS's named-configuration
support. They use RCS's native facilities for this, so
snapshots made using RCS through VC are visible even when you bypass VC.
With CVS, Meta-CVS, and Subversion, VC also uses the native
mechanism provided by that back end to make snapshots and retrieve them
(@dfn{tags} for CVS and Meta-CVS, @dfn{copies} for Subversion).
@c worded verbosely to avoid overfull hbox.
For SCCS, VC implements snapshots itself. The files it uses contain
name/file/version-number triples. These snapshots are visible only
through VC.
There is no support for VC snapshots using GNU Arch yet.
A snapshot is a set of checked-in versions. So make sure that all the
files are checked in and not locked when you make a snapshot.
File renaming and deletion can create some difficulties with snapshots.
This is not a VC-specific problem, but a general design issue in version
control systems that no one has solved very well yet.
If you rename a registered file, you need to rename its master along
with it (the command @code{vc-rename-file} does this automatically). If
you are using SCCS, you must also update the records of the snapshot, to
mention the file by its new name (@code{vc-rename-file} does this,
too). An old snapshot that refers to a master file that no longer
exists under the recorded name is invalid; VC can no longer retrieve
it. It would be beyond the scope of this manual to explain enough about
RCS and SCCS to explain how to update the snapshots by hand.
Using @code{vc-rename-file} makes the snapshot remain valid for
retrieval, but it does not solve all problems. For example, some of the
files in your program probably refer to others by name. At the very
least, the makefile probably mentions the file that you renamed. If you
retrieve an old snapshot, the renamed file is retrieved under its new
name, which is not the name that the makefile expects. So the program
won't really work as retrieved.
@node Miscellaneous VC
@subsection Miscellaneous Commands and Features of VC
This section explains the less-frequently-used features of VC.
@menu
* Change Logs and VC:: Generating a change log file from log entries.
* Renaming and VC:: A command to rename both the source and master
file correctly.
* Version Headers:: Inserting version control headers into working files.
@end menu
@node Change Logs and VC
@subsubsection Change Logs and VC
If you use RCS or CVS for a program and also maintain a change log
file for it
@iftex
(@pxref{Change Log,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}),
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Change Log}),
@end ifnottex
you can generate change log entries automatically from the version
control log entries:
@table @kbd
@item C-x v a
@kindex C-x v a
@findex vc-update-change-log
Visit the current directory's change log file and, for registered files
in that directory, create new entries for versions checked in since the
most recent entry in the change log file.
(@code{vc-update-change-log}).
This command works with RCS or CVS only, not with any of the other
back ends.
@item C-u C-x v a
As above, but only find entries for the current buffer's file.
@item M-1 C-x v a
As above, but find entries for all the currently visited files that are
maintained with version control. This works only with RCS, and it puts
all entries in the log for the default directory, which may not be
appropriate.
@end table
For example, suppose the first line of @file{ChangeLog} is dated
1999-04-10, and that the only check-in since then was by Nathaniel
Bowditch to @file{rcs2log} on 1999-05-22 with log text @samp{Ignore log
messages that start with `#'.}. Then @kbd{C-x v a} visits
@file{ChangeLog} and inserts text like this:
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
@smallexample
@group
1999-05-22 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
* rcs2log: Ignore log messages that start with `#'.
@end group
@end smallexample
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
@noindent
You can then edit the new change log entry further as you wish.
Some of the new change log entries may duplicate what's already in
ChangeLog. You will have to remove these duplicates by hand.
Normally, the log entry for file @file{foo} is displayed as @samp{*
foo: @var{text of log entry}}. The @samp{:} after @file{foo} is omitted
if the text of the log entry starts with @w{@samp{(@var{functionname}):
}}. For example, if the log entry for @file{vc.el} is
@samp{(vc-do-command): Check call-process status.}, then the text in
@file{ChangeLog} looks like this:
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
@smallexample
@group
1999-05-06 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
* vc.el (vc-do-command): Check call-process status.
@end group
@end smallexample
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
When @kbd{C-x v a} adds several change log entries at once, it groups
related log entries together if they all are checked in by the same
author at nearly the same time. If the log entries for several such
files all have the same text, it coalesces them into a single entry.
For example, suppose the most recent check-ins have the following log
entries:
@flushleft
@bullet{} For @file{vc.texinfo}: @samp{Fix expansion typos.}
@bullet{} For @file{vc.el}: @samp{Don't call expand-file-name.}
@bullet{} For @file{vc-hooks.el}: @samp{Don't call expand-file-name.}
@end flushleft
@noindent
They appear like this in @file{ChangeLog}:
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
@smallexample
@group
1999-04-01 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
* vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.
* vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.
@end group
@end smallexample
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
Normally, @kbd{C-x v a} separates log entries by a blank line, but you
can mark several related log entries to be clumped together (without an
intervening blank line) by starting the text of each related log entry
with a label of the form @w{@samp{@{@var{clumpname}@} }}. The label
itself is not copied to @file{ChangeLog}. For example, suppose the log
entries are:
@flushleft
@bullet{} For @file{vc.texinfo}: @samp{@{expand@} Fix expansion typos.}
@bullet{} For @file{vc.el}: @samp{@{expand@} Don't call expand-file-name.}
@bullet{} For @file{vc-hooks.el}: @samp{@{expand@} Don't call expand-file-name.}
@end flushleft
@noindent
Then the text in @file{ChangeLog} looks like this:
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
@smallexample
@group
1999-04-01 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org>
* vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.
* vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.
@end group
@end smallexample
@iftex
@medbreak
@end iftex
A log entry whose text begins with @samp{#} is not copied to
@file{ChangeLog}. For example, if you merely fix some misspellings in
comments, you can log the change with an entry beginning with @samp{#}
to avoid putting such trivia into @file{ChangeLog}.
@node Renaming and VC
@subsubsection Renaming VC Work Files and Master Files
@findex vc-rename-file
When you rename a registered file, you must also rename its master
file correspondingly to get proper results. Use @code{vc-rename-file}
to rename the source file as you specify, and rename its master file
accordingly. It also updates any snapshots (@pxref{Snapshots}) that
mention the file, so that they use the new name; despite this, the
snapshot thus modified may not completely work (@pxref{Snapshot
Caveats}).
Some back ends do not provide an explicit rename operation to their
repositories. After issuing @code{vc-rename-file}, use @kbd{C-x v v}
on the original and renamed buffers and provide the necessary edit
log.
You cannot use @code{vc-rename-file} on a file that is locked by
someone else.
@node Version Headers
@subsubsection Inserting Version Control Headers
Sometimes it is convenient to put version identification strings
directly into working files. Certain special strings called
@dfn{version headers} are replaced in each successive version by the
number of that version, the name of the user who created it, and other
relevant information. All of the back ends that VC supports have such
a mechanism, except GNU Arch.
VC does not normally use the information contained in these headers.
The exception is RCS---with RCS, version headers are sometimes more
reliable than the master file to determine which version of the file
you are editing. Note that in a multi-branch environment, version
headers are necessary to make VC behave correctly
@iftex
(@pxref{Multi-User Branching,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
(@pxref{Multi-User Branching}).
@end ifnottex
Searching for RCS version headers is controlled by the variable
@code{vc-consult-headers}. If it is non-@code{nil} (the default),
Emacs searches for headers to determine the version number you are
editing. Setting it to @code{nil} disables this feature.
Note that although CVS uses the same kind of version headers as RCS
does, VC never searches for these headers if you are using CVS,
regardless of the above setting.
@kindex C-x v h
@findex vc-insert-headers
You can use the @kbd{C-x v h} command (@code{vc-insert-headers}) to
insert a suitable header string.
@table @kbd
@item C-x v h
Insert headers in a file for use with your version-control system.
@end table
@vindex vc-@var{backend}-header
The default header string is @samp{@w{$}Id$} for RCS and
@samp{@w{%}W%} for SCCS. You can specify other headers to insert by
setting the variables @code{vc-@var{backend}-header} where
@var{backend} is @code{rcs} or @code{sccs}.
Instead of a single string, you can specify a list of strings; then
each string in the list is inserted as a separate header on a line of
its own.
It may be necessary to use apparently-superfluous backslashes when
writing the strings that you put in this variable. For instance, you
might write @code{"$Id\$"} rather than @code{"$Id@w{$}"}. The extra
backslash prevents the string constant from being interpreted as a
header, if the Emacs Lisp file containing it is maintained with
version control.
@vindex vc-comment-alist
Each header is inserted surrounded by tabs, inside comment delimiters,
on a new line at point. Normally the ordinary comment
start and comment end strings of the current mode are used, but for
certain modes, there are special comment delimiters for this purpose;
the variable @code{vc-comment-alist} specifies them. Each element of
this list has the form @code{(@var{mode} @var{starter} @var{ender})}.
@vindex vc-static-header-alist
The variable @code{vc-static-header-alist} specifies further strings
to add based on the name of the buffer. Its value should be a list of
elements of the form @code{(@var{regexp} . @var{format})}. Whenever
@var{regexp} matches the buffer name, @var{format} is inserted as part
of the header. A header line is inserted for each element that matches
the buffer name, and for each string specified by
@code{vc-@var{backend}-header}. The header line is made by processing the
string from @code{vc-@var{backend}-header} with the format taken from the
element. The default value for @code{vc-static-header-alist} is as follows:
@example
@group
(("\\.c$" .
"\n#ifndef lint\nstatic char vcid[] = \"\%s\";\n\
#endif /* lint */\n"))
@end group
@end example
@noindent
It specifies insertion of text of this form:
@example
@group
#ifndef lint
static char vcid[] = "@var{string}";
#endif /* lint */
@end group
@end example
@noindent
Note that the text above starts with a blank line.
If you use more than one version header in a file, put them close
together in the file. The mechanism in @code{revert-buffer} that
preserves markers may not handle markers positioned between two version
headers.
@node Customizing VC
@subsection Customizing VC
@vindex vc-handled-backends
The variable @code{vc-handled-backends} determines which version
control systems VC should handle. The default value is @code{(RCS CVS
SVN SCCS BZR GIT HG Arch MCVS)}, so it contains all the version systems
that are currently supported. If you want VC to ignore one or more of
these systems, exclude its name from the list. To disable VC entirely,
set this variable to @code{nil}.
The order of systems in the list is significant: when you visit a file
registered in more than one system (@pxref{Local Version Control}), VC
uses the system that comes first in @code{vc-handled-backends} by
default. The order is also significant when you register a file for
the first time, see
@iftex
@ref{Registering,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual},
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@ref{Registering},
@end ifnottex
for details.
@menu
* General VC Options:: Options that apply to multiple back ends.
* RCS and SCCS:: Options for RCS and SCCS.
* CVS Options:: Options for CVS.
@end menu
@node General VC Options
@subsubsection General Options
@vindex vc-make-backup-files
Emacs normally does not save backup files for source files that are
maintained with version control. If you want to make backup files even
for files that use version control, set the variable
@code{vc-make-backup-files} to a non-@code{nil} value.
@vindex vc-keep-workfiles
Normally the work file exists all the time, whether it is locked or
not. If you set @code{vc-keep-workfiles} to @code{nil}, then checking
in a new version with @kbd{C-x v v} deletes the work file; but any
attempt to visit the file with Emacs creates it again. (With CVS, work
files are always kept.)
@vindex vc-follow-symlinks
Editing a version-controlled file through a symbolic link can be
dangerous. It bypasses the version control system---you can edit the
file without locking it, and fail to check your changes in. Also,
your changes might overwrite those of another user. To protect against
this, VC checks each symbolic link that you visit, to see if it points
to a file under version control.
The variable @code{vc-follow-symlinks} controls what to do when a
symbolic link points to a version-controlled file. If it is @code{nil},
VC only displays a warning message. If it is @code{t}, VC automatically
follows the link, and visits the real file instead, telling you about
this in the echo area. If the value is @code{ask} (the default), VC
asks you each time whether to follow the link.
@vindex vc-suppress-confirm
If @code{vc-suppress-confirm} is non-@code{nil}, then @kbd{C-x v v}
and @kbd{C-x v i} can save the current buffer without asking, and
@kbd{C-x v u} also operates without asking for confirmation. (This
variable does not affect @kbd{C-x v c}; that operation is so drastic
that it should always ask for confirmation.)
@vindex vc-command-messages
VC mode does much of its work by running the shell commands for RCS,
CVS and SCCS. If @code{vc-command-messages} is non-@code{nil}, VC
displays messages to indicate which shell commands it runs, and
additional messages when the commands finish.
@vindex vc-path
You can specify additional directories to search for version control
programs by setting the variable @code{vc-path}. These directories
are searched before the usual search path. It is rarely necessary to
set this variable, because VC normally finds the proper files
automatically.
@node RCS and SCCS
@subsubsection Options for RCS and SCCS
@cindex non-strict locking (RCS)
@cindex locking, non-strict (RCS)
By default, RCS uses locking to coordinate the activities of several
users, but there is a mode called @dfn{non-strict locking} in which
you can check-in changes without locking the file first. Use
@samp{rcs -U} to switch to non-strict locking for a particular file,
see the @code{rcs} manual page for details.
When deducing the version control state of an RCS file, VC first
looks for an RCS version header string in the file (@pxref{Version
Headers}). If there is no header string, VC normally looks at the
file permissions of the work file; this is fast. But there might be
situations when the file permissions cannot be trusted. In this case
the master file has to be consulted, which is rather expensive. Also
the master file can only tell you @emph{if} there's any lock on the
file, but not whether your work file really contains that locked
version.
@vindex vc-consult-headers
You can tell VC not to use version headers to determine the file
status by setting @code{vc-consult-headers} to @code{nil}. VC then
always uses the file permissions (if it is supposed to trust them), or
else checks the master file.
@vindex vc-mistrust-permissions
You can specify the criterion for whether to trust the file
permissions by setting the variable @code{vc-mistrust-permissions}.
Its value can be @code{t} (always mistrust the file permissions and
check the master file), @code{nil} (always trust the file
permissions), or a function of one argument which makes the decision.
The argument is the directory name of the @file{RCS} subdirectory. A
non-@code{nil} value from the function says to mistrust the file
permissions. If you find that the file permissions of work files are
changed erroneously, set @code{vc-mistrust-permissions} to @code{t}.
Then VC always checks the master file to determine the file's status.
VC determines the version control state of files under SCCS much as
with RCS. It does not consider SCCS version headers, though. Thus,
the variable @code{vc-mistrust-permissions} affects SCCS use, but
@code{vc-consult-headers} does not.
@node CVS Options
@subsubsection Options specific for CVS
@cindex locking (CVS)
By default, CVS does not use locking to coordinate the activities of
several users; anyone can change a work file at any time. However,
there are ways to restrict this, resulting in behavior that resembles
locking.
@cindex CVSREAD environment variable (CVS)
For one thing, you can set the @env{CVSREAD} environment variable
(the value you use makes no difference). If this variable is defined,
CVS makes your work files read-only by default. In Emacs, you must
type @kbd{C-x v v} to make the file writable, so that editing works
in fact similar as if locking was used. Note however, that no actual
locking is performed, so several users can make their files writable
at the same time. When setting @env{CVSREAD} for the first time, make
sure to check out all your modules anew, so that the file protections
are set correctly.
@cindex cvs watch feature
@cindex watching files (CVS)
Another way to achieve something similar to locking is to use the
@dfn{watch} feature of CVS. If a file is being watched, CVS makes it
read-only by default, and you must also use @kbd{C-x v v} in Emacs to
make it writable. VC calls @code{cvs edit} to make the file writable,
and CVS takes care to notify other developers of the fact that you
intend to change the file. See the CVS documentation for details on
using the watch feature.
@vindex vc-stay-local
@vindex vc-cvs-stay-local
@cindex remote repositories (CVS)
When a file's repository is on a remote machine, VC tries to keep
network interactions to a minimum. This is controlled by the variable
@code{vc-cvs-stay-local}. There is another variable,
@code{vc-stay-local}, which enables the feature also for other back
ends that support it, including CVS. In the following, we will talk
only about @code{vc-cvs-stay-local}, but everything applies to
@code{vc-stay-local} as well.
If @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} is @code{t} (the default), then VC uses
only the entry in the local CVS subdirectory to determine the file's
state (and possibly information returned by previous CVS commands).
One consequence of this is that when you have modified a file, and
somebody else has already checked in other changes to the file, you
are not notified of it until you actually try to commit. (But you can
try to pick up any recent changes from the repository first, using
@kbd{C-x v m @key{RET}},
@iftex
@pxref{Merging,,,emacs, the Emacs Manual}).
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@pxref{Merging}).
@end ifnottex
When @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} is @code{t}, VC also makes local
version backups, so that simple diff and revert operations are
completely local (@pxref{Version Backups}).
On the other hand, if you set @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} to @code{nil},
then VC queries the remote repository @emph{before} it decides what to
do in @code{vc-next-action} (@kbd{C-x v v}), just as it does for local
repositories. It also does not make any version backups.
You can also set @code{vc-cvs-stay-local} to a regular expression
that is matched against the repository host name; VC then stays local
only for repositories from hosts that match the pattern.
@vindex vc-cvs-global-switches
You can specify additional command line options to pass to all CVS
operations in the variable @code{vc-cvs-global-switches}. These
switches are inserted immediately after the @code{cvs} command, before
the name of the operation to invoke.
@ignore
arch-tag: 140b8629-4339-4b5e-9e50-72453e51615e
@end ignore

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Windows, Frames, Buffers, Top
@chapter Multiple Windows
@cindex windows in Emacs
@cindex multiple windows in Emacs
Emacs can split a frame into two or many windows. Multiple windows
can display parts of different buffers, or different parts of one
buffer. Multiple frames always imply multiple windows, because each
frame has its own set of windows. Each window belongs to one and only
one frame.
@menu
* Basic Window:: Introduction to Emacs windows.
* Split Window:: New windows are made by splitting existing windows.
* Other Window:: Moving to another window or doing something to it.
* Pop Up Window:: Finding a file or buffer in another window.
* Force Same Window:: Forcing certain buffers to appear in the selected
window rather than in another window.
* Change Window:: Deleting windows and changing their sizes.
* Window Convenience:: Convenience functions for window handling.
@end menu
@node Basic Window
@section Concepts of Emacs Windows
Each Emacs window displays one Emacs buffer at any time. A single
buffer may appear in more than one window; if it does, any changes in
its text are displayed in all the windows where it appears. But these
windows can show different parts of the buffer, because each window
has its own value of point.
@cindex selected window
At any time, one Emacs window is the @dfn{selected window}; the
buffer this window is displaying is the current buffer. The terminal's
cursor shows the location of point in this window. Each other window
has a location of point as well. On text-only terminals, there is no
way to show where those locations are, since the terminal has only one
cursor. On a graphical display, the location of point in a
non-selected window is indicated by a hollow box; the cursor in the
selected window is blinking or solid.
Commands to move point affect the value of point for the selected Emacs
window only. They do not change the value of point in other Emacs
windows, even those showing the same buffer. The same is true for commands
such as @kbd{C-x b} to switch buffers in the selected window;
they do not affect other windows at all. However, there are other commands
such as @kbd{C-x 4 b} that select a different window and switch buffers in
it. Also, all commands that display information in a window, including
(for example) @kbd{C-h f} (@code{describe-function}) and @kbd{C-x C-b}
(@code{list-buffers}), work by switching buffers in a nonselected window
without affecting the selected window.
When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point. However,
they all have the same value for the mark, because each buffer has
only one mark position.
Each window has its own mode line, which displays the buffer name,
modification status and major and minor modes of the buffer that is
displayed in the window. The selected window's mode line appears in a
different color. @xref{Mode Line}, for full details on the mode line.
@node Split Window
@section Splitting Windows
@table @kbd
@item C-x 2
Split the selected window into two windows, one above the other
(@code{split-window-vertically}).
@item C-x 3
Split the selected window into two windows positioned side by side
(@code{split-window-horizontally}).
@item C-Mouse-2
In the mode line or scroll bar of a window, split that window.
@end table
@kindex C-x 2
@findex split-window-vertically
The command @kbd{C-x 2} (@code{split-window-vertically}) breaks the
selected window into two windows, one above the other. Both windows start
out displaying the same buffer, with the same value of point. By default
the two windows each get half the height of the window that was split; a
numeric argument specifies how many lines to give to the top window.
@kindex C-x 3
@findex split-window-horizontally
@kbd{C-x 3} (@code{split-window-horizontally}) breaks the selected
window into two side-by-side windows. A numeric argument specifies how
many columns to give the one on the left. If you are not using
scrollbars, a vertical line separates the two windows.
You can customize its color with the face @code{vertical-border}.
Windows that are not the full width of the screen have mode lines, but
they are truncated. On terminals where Emacs does not support
highlighting, truncated mode lines sometimes do not appear in inverse
video.
@kindex C-Mouse-2 @r{(scroll bar)}
You can split a window horizontally or vertically by clicking
@kbd{C-Mouse-2} in the mode line or the scroll bar. The line of
splitting goes through the place where you click: if you click on the
mode line, the new scroll bar goes above the spot; if you click in the
scroll bar, the mode line of the split window is side by side with
your click.
@vindex truncate-partial-width-windows
When a window is less than the full width, text lines too long to
fit are frequent. Continuing all those lines might be confusing, so
if the variable @code{truncate-partial-width-windows} is
non-@code{nil}, that forces truncation in all windows less than the
full width of the screen, independent of the buffer being displayed
and its value for @code{truncate-lines}. @xref{Line Truncation}.
Horizontal scrolling is often used in side-by-side windows.
@xref{Horizontal Scrolling}.
@vindex split-window-keep-point
If @code{split-window-keep-point} is non-@code{nil}, the default,
both of the windows resulting from @kbd{C-x 2} inherit the value of
point from the window that was split. This means that scrolling is
inevitable. If this variable is @code{nil}, then @kbd{C-x 2} tries to
avoid scrolling the text currently visible on the screen, by putting
point in each window at a position already visible in the window. It
also selects whichever window contains the screen line that the cursor
was previously on. Some users prefer that mode on slow terminals.
@node Other Window
@section Using Other Windows
@table @kbd
@item C-x o
Select another window (@code{other-window}). That is @kbd{o}, not zero.
@item C-M-v
Scroll the next window (@code{scroll-other-window}).
@item M-x compare-windows
Find next place where the text in the selected window does not match
the text in the next window.
@item Mouse-1
@kbd{Mouse-1}, in a window's mode line, selects that window
but does not move point in it (@code{mouse-select-window}).
@end table
@kindex C-x o
@findex other-window
To select a different window, click with @kbd{Mouse-1} on its mode
line. With the keyboard, you can switch windows by typing @kbd{C-x o}
(@code{other-window}). That is an @kbd{o}, for ``other,'' not a zero.
When there are more than two windows, this command moves through all the
windows in a cyclic order, generally top to bottom and left to right.
After the rightmost and bottommost window, it goes back to the one at
the upper left corner. A numeric argument means to move several steps
in the cyclic order of windows. A negative argument moves around the
cycle in the opposite order. When the minibuffer is active, the
minibuffer is the last window in the cycle; you can switch from the
minibuffer window to one of the other windows, and later switch back and
finish supplying the minibuffer argument that is requested.
@xref{Minibuffer Edit}.
@kindex C-M-v
@findex scroll-other-window
The usual scrolling commands (@pxref{Display}) apply to the selected
window only, but there is one command to scroll the next window.
@kbd{C-M-v} (@code{scroll-other-window}) scrolls the window that
@kbd{C-x o} would select. It takes arguments, positive and negative,
like @kbd{C-v}. (In the minibuffer, @kbd{C-M-v} scrolls the window
that contains the minibuffer help display, if any, rather than the
next window in the standard cyclic order.)
The command @kbd{M-x compare-windows} lets you compare two files or
buffers visible in two windows, by moving through them to the next
mismatch. @xref{Comparing Files}, for details.
@vindex mouse-autoselect-window
If you set @code{mouse-autoselect-window} to a non-@code{nil} value,
moving the mouse into a different window selects that window. This
feature is off by default.
@node Pop Up Window
@section Displaying in Another Window
@cindex selecting buffers in other windows
@kindex C-x 4
@kbd{C-x 4} is a prefix key for commands that select another window
(splitting the window if there is only one) and select a buffer in that
window. Different @kbd{C-x 4} commands have different ways of finding the
buffer to select.
@table @kbd
@item C-x 4 b @var{bufname} @key{RET}
Select buffer @var{bufname} in another window. This runs
@code{switch-to-buffer-other-window}.
@item C-x 4 C-o @var{bufname} @key{RET}
Display buffer @var{bufname} in another window, but
don't select that buffer or that window. This runs
@code{display-buffer}.
@item C-x 4 f @var{filename} @key{RET}
Visit file @var{filename} and select its buffer in another window. This
runs @code{find-file-other-window}. @xref{Visiting}.
@item C-x 4 d @var{directory} @key{RET}
Select a Dired buffer for directory @var{directory} in another window.
This runs @code{dired-other-window}. @xref{Dired}.
@item C-x 4 m
Start composing a mail message in another window. This runs
@code{mail-other-window}; its same-window analogue is @kbd{C-x m}
(@pxref{Sending Mail}).
@item C-x 4 .
Find a tag in the current tags table, in another window. This runs
@code{find-tag-other-window}, the multiple-window variant of @kbd{M-.}
(@pxref{Tags}).
@item C-x 4 r @var{filename} @key{RET}
Visit file @var{filename} read-only, and select its buffer in another
window. This runs @code{find-file-read-only-other-window}.
@xref{Visiting}.
@end table
@node Force Same Window
@section Forcing Display in the Same Window
Certain Emacs commands switch to a specific buffer with special
contents. For example, @kbd{M-x shell} switches to a buffer named
@samp{*shell*}. By convention, all these commands are written to pop up
the buffer in a separate window. But you can specify that certain of
these buffers should appear in the selected window.
@vindex same-window-buffer-names
If you add a buffer name to the list @code{same-window-buffer-names},
the effect is that such commands display that particular buffer by
switching to it in the selected window. For example, if you add the
element @code{"*grep*"} to the list, the @code{grep} command will
display its output buffer in the selected window.
The default value of @code{same-window-buffer-names} is not
@code{nil}: it specifies buffer names @samp{*info*}, @samp{*mail*} and
@samp{*shell*} (as well as others used by more obscure Emacs packages).
This is why @kbd{M-x shell} normally switches to the @samp{*shell*}
buffer in the selected window. If you delete this element from the
value of @code{same-window-buffer-names}, the behavior of @kbd{M-x
shell} will change---it will pop up the buffer in another window
instead.
@vindex same-window-regexps
You can specify these buffers more generally with the variable
@code{same-window-regexps}. Set it to a list of regular expressions;
then any buffer whose name matches one of those regular expressions is
displayed by switching to it in the selected window. (Once again, this
applies only to buffers that normally get displayed for you in a
separate window.) The default value of this variable specifies Telnet
and rlogin buffers.
An analogous feature lets you specify buffers which should be
displayed in their own individual frames. @xref{Special Buffer Frames}.
@node Change Window
@section Deleting and Rearranging Windows
@table @kbd
@item C-x 0
Delete the selected window (@code{delete-window}). The last character
in this key sequence is a zero.
@item C-x 1
Delete all windows in the selected frame except the selected window
(@code{delete-other-windows}).
@item C-x 4 0
Delete the selected window and kill the buffer that was showing in it
(@code{kill-buffer-and-window}). The last character in this key
sequence is a zero.
@item C-x ^
Make selected window taller (@code{enlarge-window}).
@item C-x @}
Make selected window wider (@code{enlarge-window-horizontally}).
@item C-x @{
Make selected window narrower (@code{shrink-window-horizontally}).
@item C-x -
Shrink this window if its buffer doesn't need so many lines
(@code{shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer}).
@item C-x +
Make all windows the same height (@code{balance-windows}).
@end table
@kindex C-x 0
@findex delete-window
To delete a window, type @kbd{C-x 0} (@code{delete-window}). (That is
a zero.) The space occupied by the deleted window is given to an
adjacent window (but not the minibuffer window, even if that is active
at the time). Once a window is deleted, its attributes are forgotten;
only restoring a window configuration can bring it back. Deleting the
window has no effect on the buffer it used to display; the buffer
continues to exist, and you can select it in any window with @kbd{C-x
b}.
@findex kill-buffer-and-window
@kindex C-x 4 0
@kbd{C-x 4 0} (@code{kill-buffer-and-window}) is a stronger command
than @kbd{C-x 0}; it kills the current buffer and then deletes the
selected window.
@kindex C-x 1
@findex delete-other-windows
@kbd{C-x 1} (@code{delete-other-windows}) is more powerful in a
different way; it deletes all the windows except the selected one (and
the minibuffer); the selected window expands to use the whole frame
except for the echo area.
@kindex C-x ^
@findex enlarge-window
@kindex C-x @}
@findex enlarge-window-horizontally
@vindex window-min-height
@vindex window-min-width
To readjust the division of space among vertically adjacent windows,
use @kbd{C-x ^} (@code{enlarge-window}). It makes the currently
selected window one line bigger, or as many lines as is specified
with a numeric argument. With a negative argument, it makes the
selected window smaller. @kbd{C-x @}}
(@code{enlarge-window-horizontally}) makes the selected window wider by
the specified number of columns. @kbd{C-x @{}
(@code{shrink-window-horizontally}) makes the selected window narrower
by the specified number of columns.
When you make a window bigger, the space comes from its peers. If
this makes any window too small, it is deleted and its space is given
to an adjacent window. The minimum size is specified by the variables
@code{window-min-height} and @code{window-min-width}.
@kindex C-x -
@findex shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer
The command @kbd{C-x -} (@code{shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer})
reduces the height of the selected window, if it is taller than
necessary to show the whole text of the buffer it is displaying. It
gives the extra lines to other windows in the frame.
@kindex C-x +
@findex balance-windows
You can also use @kbd{C-x +} (@code{balance-windows}) to even out the
heights of all the windows in the selected frame.
Mouse clicks on the mode line provide another way to change window
heights and to delete windows. @xref{Mode Line Mouse}.
@node Window Convenience
@section Window Handling Convenience Features and Customization
@findex winner-mode
@cindex Winner mode
@cindex mode, Winner
@cindex undoing window configuration changes
@cindex window configuration changes, undoing
@kbd{M-x winner-mode} is a global minor mode that records the
changes in the window configuration (i.e. how the frames are
partitioned into windows), so that you can ``undo'' them. To undo,
use @kbd{C-c left} (@code{winner-undo}). If you change your mind
while undoing, you can redo the changes you had undone using @kbd{C-c
right} (@code{M-x winner-redo}). Another way to enable Winner mode is
by customizing the variable @code{winner-mode}.
@cindex Windmove package
@cindex directional window selection
@findex windmove-right
@findex windmove-default-keybindings
The Windmove commands move directionally between neighboring windows in
a frame. @kbd{M-x windmove-right} selects the window immediately to the
right of the currently selected one, and similarly for the ``left,'' ``up,''
and ``down'' counterparts. @kbd{M-x windmove-default-keybindings} binds
these commands to @kbd{S-right} etc. (Not all terminals support shifted
arrow keys, however.)
Follow minor mode (@kbd{M-x follow-mode}) synchronizes several
windows on the same buffer so that they always display adjacent
sections of that buffer. @xref{Follow Mode}.
@vindex scroll-all-mode
@cindex scrolling windows together
@cindex Scroll-all mode
@cindex mode, Scroll-all
@kbd{M-x scroll-all-mode} provides commands to scroll all visible
windows together. You can also turn it on by customizing the variable
@code{scroll-all-mode}. The commands provided are @kbd{M-x
scroll-all-scroll-down-all}, @kbd{M-x scroll-all-page-down-all} and
their corresponding ``up'' equivalents. To make this mode useful,
you should bind these commands to appropriate keys.
@ignore
arch-tag: 8bea7453-d4b1-49b1-9bf4-cfe4383e1113
@end ignore

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