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1999-07-12 Richard Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
* Version 20.4 released.
1999-02-22 Andreas Schwab <schwab@gnu.org>
* gnus.texi: Fix punctuation after @xref.
1999-01-18 Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
* msdog.texi (MS-DOS and MULE): dos-unsupported-character-glyph is
a triangle by default, not a solid box.
1999-01-17 Andrew Innes <andrewi@gnu.org>
* msdog.texi (MS-DOS Printing): Rewrite section.
* emacs.texi (Top): Include Windows 98 in the MS-DOS section.
1998-12-04 Markus Rost <rost@delysid.gnu.org>
* Makefile.in (INFO_TARGETS): Delete customize.info.
(DVI_TARGETS): Delete customize.dvi.
(../info/customize, customize.dvi): Targets deleted.
1998-11-18 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.ai.mit.edu>
* customize.texi: File deleted.
1998-11-08 Eli Zaretskii <eliz@mescaline.gnu.org>
* frames.texi: Change @xref to @pxref and add comma after @xref.
* custom.texi (Locals): Likewise.
* programs.texi (Fortran Autofill): Likewise.
* text.texi (TeX Editing): Likewise.
* viper.texi: Likewise.
1998-08-24 Andreas Schwab <schwab@delysid.gnu.org>
* reftex.texi: Fix info file name.
* forms.texi (Forms Commands): Change @item to @itemx for
secondary items.
* viper.texi (Groundwork): Likewise.
(Commands): Remove extra Top from @node.
1998-08-19 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 20.3 released.
1998-08-10 Carsten Dominik <cd@delysid.gnu.org>
* reftex.texi: Updated to the latest RefTeX version.
1998-05-06 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.org>
* Makefile.in (EMACSSOURCES): Add mule.texi.
Add msdog.texi, ack.texi. Remove gnu1.texi.
1998-04-06 Andreas Schwab <schwab@gnu.org>
* Makefile.in (ENVADD): Enviroment vars to pass to texi2dvi. Use
it in dvi targets.
(../etc/GNU): Change to $(srcdir) first.
1998-03-11 Carsten Dominik <cd@delysid.gnu.org>
* reftex.texi Updated for RefTeX version 3.22.
1998-02-08 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.org>
* Makefile.in (reftex.dvi, ../info/reftex): New targets.
(INFO_TARGETS, DVI_TARGETS): Add the new targets.
1997-09-23 Paul Eggert <eggert@twinsun.com>
* Makefile.in: Merge changes mistakenly made to `Makefile'.
(INFO_TARGETS): Change ../info/custom to ../info/customize.
(../info/customize): Renamed from ../info/custom.
(../info/viper, viper.dvi): Remove dependency on viper-cmd.texi.
1997-09-19 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 20.2 released.
1997-09-15 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 20.1 released.
1997-08-24 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile (../info/customize, customize.dvi): New targets.
(INFO_TARGETS): Add ../info/customize.
(DVI_TARGETS): Add customize.dvi.
1997-07-10 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile (../info/viper, viper.dvi): Delete viper-cmd.texi dep.
1996-08-11 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 19.33 released.
1996-07-31 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 19.32 released.
1996-06-27 Lars Magne Ingebrigtsen <larsi@ifi.uio.no>
* Makefile.in: Add rules for the Message manual.
1996-06-26 Lars Magne Ingebrigtsen <larsi@ifi.uio.no>
* gnus.texi: New version.
* message.texi: New manual.
1996-06-20 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (All info targets): cd $(srcdir) to do the work.
1996-06-19 Richard Stallman <rms@psilocin.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (All info targets): Specify $(srcdir) in input files.
Specify -I option.
(All dvi targets): Set the TEXINPUTS variable.
1996-05-25 Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 19.31 released.
1996-01-07 Richard Stallman <rms@whiz-bang.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (../info/ccmode): Renamed from ../info/cc-mode.
(INFO_TARGETS): Use new name. This avoids name conflict on MSDOS.
1995-11-29 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (../info/cc-mode, cc-mode.dvi): New targets.
(INFO_TARGETS): Add ../info/cc-mode.
(DVI_TARGETS): Add cc-mode.dvi.
1995-11-24 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 19.30 released.
1995-11-04 Lars Magne Ingebrigtsen <larsi@ifi.uio.no>
* gnus.texi: New file.
1995-11-04 Erik Naggum <erik@naggum.no>
* gnus.texi: File deleted.
1995-11-02 Stephen Gildea <gildea@x.org>
* mh-e.texi: "Function Index" -> "Command Index" to work with
Emacs 19.30 C-h C-k support of separately-documented commands.
1995-06-26 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (../info/ediff, ediff.dvi): New targets.
(INFO_TARGETS, DVI_TARGETS): Add those new targets.
1995-04-24 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (INFO_TARGETS, DVI_TARGETS): Add viper targets.
(../info/viper, viper.dvi): New targets.
1995-04-20 Kevin Rodgers <kevinr@ihs.com>
* dired-x.texi (Installation): Change the example to set
buffer-local variables like dired-omit-files-p in
dired-mode-hook.
1995-04-17 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (INFO_TARGETS, DVI_TARGETS): Add mh-e targets.
(../info/mh-e, mh-e.dvi): New targets.
1995-02-07 Richard Stallman <rms@pogo.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in (maintainer-clean): Renamed from realclean.
1994-11-23 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile.in: New file.
* Makefile: File deleted.
1994-11-19 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Makefile (TEXINDEX_OBJS): Variable deleted.
(texindex, texindex.o, getopt.o): Rules deleted.
All deps on texindex deleted.
(distclean): Don't delete texindex.
(mostlyclean): Don't delete *.o.
* texindex.c, getopt.c: Files deleted.
1994-09-07 Richard Stallman <rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu>
* Version 19.26 released.
1994-07-02 Richard Stallman (rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (EMACSSOURCES): Exclude undo.texi.
1994-05-30 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.25 released.
1994-05-23 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.24 released.
1994-05-16 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.23 released.
1994-04-17 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile: Delete spurious tab.
1994-02-16 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (.SUFFIXES): New rule.
1994-01-15 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (dired-x.dvi, ../info/dired-x): New targets.
(INFO_TARGETS, DVI_TARGETS): Add the new targets.
1994-01-08 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (../info/sc): Renamed frin sc.info.
(../info/cl): Likewise.
(INFO_TARGETS): Use new names.
1993-12-04 Richard Stallman (rms@srarc2)
* getopt.c: New file.
* Makefile (TEXINDEX_OBJS): Use getopt.o in this dir, not ../lib-src.
(getopt.o): New rule.
(dvi): Don't depend on texindex.
(emacs.dvi, cl.dvi, forms.dvi, vip.dvi, gnus.dvi, sc.dvi):
Depend on texindex.
1993-12-03 Richard Stallman (rms@srarc2)
* Makefile (../info/sc.info): Renamed from ../info/sc.
(TEXI2DVI): New variable.
(emacs.dvi, cl.dvi forms.dvi, sc.dvi, vip.dvi, gnus.dvi, info.dvi):
Add explicit commands.
(TEXINDEX_OBJS): Delete duplicate getopt.o.
1993-11-27 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.22 released.
1993-11-18 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (TEXINDEX_OBJS): Delete spurious period.
1993-11-16 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.21 released.
1993-11-15 Paul Eggert (eggert@twinsun.com)
* man/Makefile (../info/cl.info): Renamed from ../info/cl.
1993-11-15 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (../etc/GNU): New target.
(EMACSSOURCES): Add gnu1.texi.
1993-11-14 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (realclean): Don't delete the Info files.
1993-10-25 Brian Fox (bfox@albert.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* forms.texi: Fix forms.texi so that it will format correctly.
Added missing `@end iftex', fixed bad reference.
* info.texi, info-stn.texi: New files implement texinfo version of
`info' file.
* frames.texi (Creating Frames): Mention `C-x 5' instead of `C-x
4' where appropriate.
1993-10-20 Brian Fox (bfox@ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile: Fix targets for texindex, new info.texi files.
* info-stnd.texi: New file implements info for standalone info
reader.
* info.texi: Updated to include recent changes to "../info/info".
New source file for ../info/info; includes info-stnd.texi.
* texindex.c: Include "../src/config.h" if building in emacs.
* Makefile: Change all files to FILENAME.texi, force all targets
to be FILENAME, not FILENAME.info. This changes sc.texinfo,
vip.texinfo, forms.texinfo, cl.texinfo.
Add target to build texindex.c, defining `emacs'.
* forms.texi: Install new file to match version 2.3 of forms.el.
1993-08-14 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.19 released.
1993-08-10 Simon Leinen (simon@lia.di.epfl.ch)
* sc.texinfo: Fix info file name.
* Makefile (info): Added gnus and sc.
(dvi): Added gnus.dvi and sc.dvi.
(../info/sc, sc.dvi): New targets.
1993-08-08 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.18 released.
1993-07-20 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile: Fix source file names of the separate manuals.
(gnus.dvi, ../info/gnus): New targets.
1993-07-18 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.17 released.
1993-07-10 Richard Stallman (rms@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* split-man: Fix typos in last change.
1993-07-06 Jim Blandy (jimb@geech.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.16 released.
1993-06-19 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* version 19.15 released.
1993-06-18 Jim Blandy (jimb@geech.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile (distclean): It's rm, not rf.
1993-06-17 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.14 released.
1993-06-16 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Makefile: New file.
1993-06-08 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.13 released.
1993-05-27 Jim Blandy (jimb@geech.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.9 released.
1993-05-25 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.8 released.
1993-05-25 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* cmdargs.texi: Document the -i, -itype, and -iconic options.
* trouble.texi: It's `enable-flow-control-on', not
`evade-flow-control-on'.
1993-05-24 Jim Blandy (jimb@wookumz.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* display.texi: Document standard-display-european.
1993-05-22 Jim Blandy (jimb@geech.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* Version 19.7 released.
* emacs.texi: Add a sentence to the top menu mentioning the
specific version of Emacs this manual applies to.
1993-04-25 Eric S. Raymond (eric@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* basic.texi: Documented next-line-add-lines variable used to
implement down-arrow.
* killing.texi: Documented kill-whole-line.
1993-04-18 Noah Friedman (friedman@nutrimat.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* text.texi: Updated unix TeX ordering information.
1993-03-26 Eric S. Raymond (eric@geech.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* news.texi: Mentioned fill-rectangle in keybinding list.
* killing.texi: Documented fill-rectangle.
1993-03-17 Eric S. Raymond (eric@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* vc.texi: Brought the docs up to date with VC 5.2.
1992-01-10 Eric S. Raymond (eric@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu)
* emacs.tex: Mentioned blackbox and gomoku under Amusements.
Assembler mode is now mentioned and appropriately
indexed under Programming Modes.
1991-02-15 Robert J. Chassell (bob at wookumz.ai.mit.edu)
* emacs.tex: Updated TeX ordering information.
1990-08-30 David Lawrence (tale at pogo.ai.mit.edu)
* gnus.texinfo: New file. Removed installation instructions.
1990-06-26 David Lawrence (tale at geech)
* emacs.tex: Noted that completion-ignored-extensions is not used
to filter out names when all completions are displayed in
*Completions*.
1990-05-25 Richard Stallman (rms at sugar-bombs.ai.mit.edu)
* texindex.tex: If USG, include sys/types.h and sys/fcntl.h.
1990-03-21 Jim Kingdon (kingdon at pogo.ai.mit.edu)
* emacs.tex: Add @findex grep.
1989-01-17 Robert J. Chassell (bob at rice-chex.ai.mit.edu)
* texinfo.tex: Changed spelling of `\sc' font to `\smallcaps' and
then defined `\sc' as the command for smallcaps in Texinfo. This
measns that the @sc command will produce small caps. bfox has
made the corresponding change to makeinfo and texinfm.el.
1988-08-16 Robert J. Chassell (bob at frosted-flakes.ai.mit.edu)
* emacs.tex: Corrected two typos. No other changes before
Version 19 will be made.
* vip.texinfo: Removed menu entry Adding Lisp Code in node
Customization since the menu entry did not point to anything.
Also added an @finalout command to remove overfull hboxes from the
printed output.
* cl.texinfo: Added @bye, \input line and @settitle to file.
This file is clearly intended to be a chapter of some other work,
but the other work does not yet exist.
1988-07-25 Robert J. Chassell (bob at frosted-flakes.ai.mit.edu)
* texinfo.texinfo: Three typos corrected.
1988-05-23 Robert J. Chassell (bob at frosted-flakes.ai.mit.edu)
* emacs.tex: Update information for obtaining TeX distribution from the
University of Washington.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Abbrevs, Picture, Building, Top
@chapter Abbrevs
@cindex abbrevs
@cindex expansion (of abbrevs)
A defined @dfn{abbrev} is a word which @dfn{expands}, if you insert
it, into some different text. Abbrevs are defined by the user to expand
in specific ways. For example, you might define @samp{foo} as an abbrev
expanding to @samp{find outer otter}. Then you would be able to insert
@samp{find outer otter } into the buffer by typing @kbd{f o o
@key{SPC}}.
A second kind of abbreviation facility is called @dfn{dynamic abbrev
expansion}. You use dynamic abbrev expansion with an explicit command
to expand the letters in the buffer before point by looking for other
words in the buffer that start with those letters. @xref{Dynamic
Abbrevs}.
@menu
* Abbrev Concepts:: Fundamentals of defined abbrevs.
* Defining Abbrevs:: Defining an abbrev, so it will expand when typed.
* Expanding Abbrevs:: Controlling expansion: prefixes, canceling expansion.
* Editing Abbrevs:: Viewing or editing the entire list of defined abbrevs.
* Saving Abbrevs:: Saving the entire list of abbrevs for another session.
* Dynamic Abbrevs:: Abbreviations for words already in the buffer.
* Dabbrev Customization:: What is a word, for dynamic abbrevs. Case handling.
@end menu
@node Abbrev Concepts
@section Abbrev Concepts
An @dfn{abbrev} is a word which has been defined to @dfn{expand} into
a specified @dfn{expansion}. When you insert a word-separator character
following the abbrev, that expands the abbrev---replacing the abbrev
with its expansion. For example, if @samp{foo} is defined as an abbrev
expanding to @samp{find outer otter}, then you can insert @samp{find
outer otter.} into the buffer by typing @kbd{f o o .}.
@findex abbrev-mode
@vindex abbrev-mode
@cindex Abbrev mode
@cindex mode, Abbrev
Abbrevs expand only when Abbrev mode (a minor mode) is enabled.
Disabling Abbrev mode does not cause abbrev definitions to be forgotten,
but they do not expand until Abbrev mode is enabled again. The command
@kbd{M-x abbrev-mode} toggles Abbrev mode; with a numeric argument, it
turns Abbrev mode on if the argument is positive, off otherwise.
@xref{Minor Modes}. @code{abbrev-mode} is also a variable; Abbrev mode is
on when the variable is non-@code{nil}. The variable @code{abbrev-mode}
automatically becomes local to the current buffer when it is set.
Abbrev definitions can be @dfn{mode-specific}---active only in one major
mode. Abbrevs can also have @dfn{global} definitions that are active in
all major modes. The same abbrev can have a global definition and various
mode-specific definitions for different major modes. A mode-specific
definition for the current major mode overrides a global definition.
Abbrevs can be defined interactively during the editing session. Lists
of abbrev definitions can also be saved in files and reloaded in later
sessions. Some users keep extensive lists of abbrevs that they load in
every session.
@node Defining Abbrevs
@section Defining Abbrevs
@table @kbd
@item C-x a g
Define an abbrev, using one or more words before point as its expansion
(@code{add-global-abbrev}).
@item C-x a l
Similar, but define an abbrev specific to the current major mode
(@code{add-mode-abbrev}).
@item C-x a i g
Define a word in the buffer as an abbrev (@code{inverse-add-global-abbrev}).
@item C-x a i l
Define a word in the buffer as a mode-specific abbrev
(@code{inverse-add-mode-abbrev}).
@item M-x kill-all-abbrevs
This command discards all abbrev definitions currently in effect,
leaving a blank slate.
@end table
@kindex C-x a g
@findex add-global-abbrev
The usual way to define an abbrev is to enter the text you want the
abbrev to expand to, position point after it, and type @kbd{C-x a g}
(@code{add-global-abbrev}). This reads the abbrev itself using the
minibuffer, and then defines it as an abbrev for one or more words before
point. Use a numeric argument to say how many words before point should be
taken as the expansion. For example, to define the abbrev @samp{foo} as
mentioned above, insert the text @samp{find outer otter} and then type
@kbd{C-u 3 C-x a g f o o @key{RET}}.
An argument of zero to @kbd{C-x a g} means to use the contents of the
region as the expansion of the abbrev being defined.
@kindex C-x a l
@findex add-mode-abbrev
The command @kbd{C-x a l} (@code{add-mode-abbrev}) is similar, but
defines a mode-specific abbrev. Mode-specific abbrevs are active only in a
particular major mode. @kbd{C-x a l} defines an abbrev for the major mode
in effect at the time @kbd{C-x a l} is typed. The arguments work the same
as for @kbd{C-x a g}.
@kindex C-x a i g
@findex inverse-add-global-abbrev
@kindex C-x a i l
@findex inverse-add-mode-abbrev
If the text already in the buffer is the abbrev, rather than its
expansion, use command @kbd{C-x a i g}
(@code{inverse-add-global-abbrev}) instead of @kbd{C-x a g}, or use
@kbd{C-x a i l} (@code{inverse-add-mode-abbrev}) instead of @kbd{C-x a
l}. These commands are called ``inverse'' because they invert the
meaning of the two text strings they use (one from the buffer and one
read with the minibuffer).
To change the definition of an abbrev, just define a new definition.
When the abbrev has a prior definition, the abbrev definition commands
ask for confirmation for replacing it.
To remove an abbrev definition, give a negative argument to the abbrev
definition command: @kbd{C-u - C-x a g} or @kbd{C-u - C-x a l}. The
former removes a global definition, while the latter removes a
mode-specific definition.
@findex kill-all-abbrevs
@kbd{M-x kill-all-abbrevs} removes all the abbrev definitions there
are, both global and local.
@node Expanding Abbrevs
@section Controlling Abbrev Expansion
An abbrev expands whenever it is present in the buffer just before
point and you type a self-inserting whitespace or punctuation character
(@key{SPC}, comma, etc.@:). More precisely, any character that is not a
word constituent expands an abbrev, and any word-constituent character
can be part of an abbrev. The most common way to use an abbrev is to
insert it and then insert a punctuation character to expand it.
@vindex abbrev-all-caps
Abbrev expansion preserves case; thus, @samp{foo} expands into @samp{find
outer otter}; @samp{Foo} into @samp{Find outer otter}, and @samp{FOO} into
@samp{FIND OUTER OTTER} or @samp{Find Outer Otter} according to the
variable @code{abbrev-all-caps} (a non-@code{nil} value chooses the first
of the two expansions).
These commands are used to control abbrev expansion:
@table @kbd
@item M-'
Separate a prefix from a following abbrev to be expanded
(@code{abbrev-prefix-mark}).
@item C-x a e
@findex expand-abbrev
Expand the abbrev before point (@code{expand-abbrev}).
This is effective even when Abbrev mode is not enabled.
@item M-x expand-region-abbrevs
Expand some or all abbrevs found in the region.
@end table
@kindex M-'
@findex abbrev-prefix-mark
You may wish to expand an abbrev with a prefix attached; for example,
if @samp{cnst} expands into @samp{construction}, you might want to use
it to enter @samp{reconstruction}. It does not work to type
@kbd{recnst}, because that is not necessarily a defined abbrev. What
you can do is use the command @kbd{M-'} (@code{abbrev-prefix-mark}) in
between the prefix @samp{re} and the abbrev @samp{cnst}. First, insert
@samp{re}. Then type @kbd{M-'}; this inserts a hyphen in the buffer to
indicate that it has done its work. Then insert the abbrev @samp{cnst};
the buffer now contains @samp{re-cnst}. Now insert a non-word character
to expand the abbrev @samp{cnst} into @samp{construction}. This
expansion step also deletes the hyphen that indicated @kbd{M-'} had been
used. The result is the desired @samp{reconstruction}.
If you actually want the text of the abbrev in the buffer, rather than
its expansion, you can accomplish this by inserting the following
punctuation with @kbd{C-q}. Thus, @kbd{foo C-q ,} leaves @samp{foo,} in
the buffer.
@findex unexpand-abbrev
If you expand an abbrev by mistake, you can undo the expansion and
bring back the abbrev itself by typing @kbd{C-_} to undo (@pxref{Undo}).
This also undoes the insertion of the non-word character that expanded
the abbrev. If the result you want is the terminating non-word
character plus the unexpanded abbrev, you must reinsert the terminating
character, quoting it with @kbd{C-q}. You can also use the command
@kbd{M-x unexpand-abbrev} to cancel the last expansion without
deleting the terminating character.
@findex expand-region-abbrevs
@kbd{M-x expand-region-abbrevs} searches through the region for defined
abbrevs, and for each one found offers to replace it with its expansion.
This command is useful if you have typed in text using abbrevs but forgot
to turn on Abbrev mode first. It may also be useful together with a
special set of abbrev definitions for making several global replacements at
once. This command is effective even if Abbrev mode is not enabled.
Expanding an abbrev runs the hook @code{pre-abbrev-expand-hook}
(@pxref{Hooks}).
@need 1500
@node Editing Abbrevs
@section Examining and Editing Abbrevs
@table @kbd
@item M-x list-abbrevs
Display a list of all abbrev definitions.
@item M-x edit-abbrevs
Edit a list of abbrevs; you can add, alter or remove definitions.
@end table
@findex list-abbrevs
The output from @kbd{M-x list-abbrevs} looks like this:
@example
(lisp-mode-abbrev-table)
"dk" 0 "define-key"
(global-abbrev-table)
"dfn" 0 "definition"
@end example
@noindent
(Some blank lines of no semantic significance, and some other abbrev
tables, have been omitted.)
A line containing a name in parentheses is the header for abbrevs in a
particular abbrev table; @code{global-abbrev-table} contains all the global
abbrevs, and the other abbrev tables that are named after major modes
contain the mode-specific abbrevs.
Within each abbrev table, each nonblank line defines one abbrev. The
word at the beginning of the line is the abbrev. The number that
follows is the number of times the abbrev has been expanded. Emacs
keeps track of this to help you see which abbrevs you actually use, so
that you can eliminate those that you don't use often. The string at
the end of the line is the expansion.
@findex edit-abbrevs
@kindex C-c C-c @r{(Edit Abbrevs)}
@kbd{M-x edit-abbrevs} allows you to add, change or kill abbrev
definitions by editing a list of them in an Emacs buffer. The list has
the same format described above. The buffer of abbrevs is called
@samp{*Abbrevs*}, and is in Edit-Abbrevs mode. Type @kbd{C-c C-c} in
this buffer to install the abbrev definitions as specified in the
buffer---and delete any abbrev definitions not listed.
The command @code{edit-abbrevs} is actually the same as
@code{list-abbrevs} except that it selects the buffer @samp{*Abbrevs*}
whereas @code{list-abbrevs} merely displays it in another window.
@node Saving Abbrevs
@section Saving Abbrevs
These commands allow you to keep abbrev definitions between editing
sessions.
@table @kbd
@item M-x write-abbrev-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Write a file @var{file} describing all defined abbrevs.
@item M-x read-abbrev-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Read the file @var{file} and define abbrevs as specified therein.
@item M-x quietly-read-abbrev-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
Similar but do not display a message about what is going on.
@item M-x define-abbrevs
Define abbrevs from definitions in current buffer.
@item M-x insert-abbrevs
Insert all abbrevs and their expansions into current buffer.
@end table
@findex write-abbrev-file
@kbd{M-x write-abbrev-file} reads a file name using the minibuffer and
then writes a description of all current abbrev definitions into that
file. This is used to save abbrev definitions for use in a later
session. The text stored in the file is a series of Lisp expressions
that, when executed, define the same abbrevs that you currently have.
@findex read-abbrev-file
@findex quietly-read-abbrev-file
@vindex abbrev-file-name
@kbd{M-x read-abbrev-file} reads a file name using the minibuffer and
then reads the file, defining abbrevs according to the contents of the
file. @kbd{M-x quietly-read-abbrev-file} is the same except that it
does not display a message in the echo area saying that it is doing its
work; it is actually useful primarily in the @file{.emacs} file. If an
empty argument is given to either of these functions, they use the file
name specified in the variable @code{abbrev-file-name}, which is by
default @code{"~/.abbrev_defs"}.
@vindex save-abbrevs
Emacs will offer to save abbrevs automatically if you have changed any of
them, whenever it offers to save all files (for @kbd{C-x s} or @kbd{C-x
C-c}). This feature can be inhibited by setting the variable
@code{save-abbrevs} to @code{nil}.
@findex insert-abbrevs
@findex define-abbrevs
The commands @kbd{M-x insert-abbrevs} and @kbd{M-x define-abbrevs} are
similar to the previous commands but work on text in an Emacs buffer.
@kbd{M-x insert-abbrevs} inserts text into the current buffer before point,
describing all current abbrev definitions; @kbd{M-x define-abbrevs} parses
the entire current buffer and defines abbrevs accordingly.@refill
@node Dynamic Abbrevs
@section Dynamic Abbrev Expansion
The abbrev facility described above operates automatically as you insert
text, but all abbrevs must be defined explicitly. By contrast,
@dfn{dynamic abbrevs} allow the meanings of abbrevs to be determined
automatically from the contents of the buffer, but dynamic abbrev expansion
happens only when you request it explicitly.
@kindex M-/
@kindex C-M-/
@findex dabbrev-expand
@findex dabbrev-completion
@table @kbd
@item M-/
Expand the word in the buffer before point as a @dfn{dynamic abbrev},
by searching in the buffer for words starting with that abbreviation
(@code{dabbrev-expand}).
@item C-M-/
Complete the word before point as a dynamic abbrev
(@code{dabbrev-completion}).
@end table
@vindex dabbrev-limit
For example, if the buffer contains @samp{does this follow } and you
type @kbd{f o M-/}, the effect is to insert @samp{follow} because that
is the last word in the buffer that starts with @samp{fo}. A numeric
argument to @kbd{M-/} says to take the second, third, etc.@: distinct
expansion found looking backward from point. Repeating @kbd{M-/}
searches for an alternative expansion by looking farther back. After
scanning all the text before point, it searches the text after point.
The variable @code{dabbrev-limit}, if non-@code{nil}, specifies how far
in the buffer to search for an expansion.
@vindex dabbrev-check-all-buffers
After scanning the current buffer, @kbd{M-/} normally searches other
buffers, unless you have set @code{dabbrev-check-all-buffers} to
@code{nil}.
A negative argument to @kbd{M-/}, as in @kbd{C-u - M-/}, says to
search first for expansions after point, and second for expansions
before point. If you repeat the @kbd{M-/} to look for another
expansion, do not specify an argument. This tries all the expansions
after point and then the expansions before point.
After you have expanded a dynamic abbrev, you can copy additional
words that follow the expansion in its original context. Simply type
@kbd{@key{SPC} M-/} for each word you want to copy. The spacing and
punctuation between words is copied along with the words.
The command @kbd{C-M-/} (@code{dabbrev-completion}) performs
completion of a dynamic abbreviation. Instead of trying the possible
expansions one by one, it finds all of them, then inserts the text that
they have in common. If they have nothing in common, @kbd{C-M-/}
displays a list of completions, from which you can select a choice in
the usual manner. @xref{Completion}.
Dynamic abbrev expansion is completely independent of Abbrev mode; the
expansion of a word with @kbd{M-/} is completely independent of whether
it has a definition as an ordinary abbrev.
@node Dabbrev Customization
@section Customizing Dynamic Abbreviation
Normally, dynamic abbrev expansion ignores case when searching for
expansions. That is, the expansion need not agree in case with the word
you are expanding.
@vindex dabbrev-case-fold-search
This feature is controlled by the variable
@code{dabbrev-case-fold-search}. If it is @code{t}, case is ignored in
this search; if @code{nil}, the word and the expansion must match in
case. If the value of @code{dabbrev-case-fold-search} is
@code{case-fold-search}, which is true by default, then the variable
@code{case-fold-search} controls whether to ignore case while searching
for expansions.
@vindex dabbrev-case-replace
Normally, dynamic abbrev expansion preserves the case pattern @emph{of
the abbrev you have typed}, by converting the expansion to that case
pattern.
@vindex dabbrev-case-fold-search
The variable @code{dabbrev-case-replace} controls whether to preserve
the case pattern of the abbrev. If it is @code{t}, the abbrev's case
pattern is preserved in most cases; if @code{nil}, the expansion is
always copied verbatim. If the value of @code{dabbrev-case-replace} is
@code{case-replace}, which is true by default, then the variable
@code{case-replace} controls whether to copy the expansion verbatim.
However, if the expansion contains a complex mixed case pattern, and
the abbrev matches this pattern as far as it goes, then the expansion is
always copied verbatim, regardless of those variables. Thus, for
example, if the buffer contains @code{variableWithSillyCasePattern}, and
you type @kbd{v a M-/}, it copies the expansion verbatim including its
case pattern.
@vindex dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp
The variable @code{dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp}, if non-@code{nil},
controls which characters are considered part of a word, for dynamic expansion
purposes. The regular expression must match just one character, never
two or more. The same regular expression also determines which
characters are part of an expansion. The value @code{nil} has a special
meaning: abbreviations are made of word characters, but expansions are
made of word and symbol characters.
@vindex dabbrev-abbrev-skip-leading-regexp
In shell scripts and makefiles, a variable name is sometimes prefixed
with @samp{$} and sometimes not. Major modes for this kind of text can
customize dynamic abbreviation to handle optional prefixes by setting
the variable @code{dabbrev-abbrev-skip-leading-regexp}. Its value
should be a regular expression that matches the optional prefix that
dynamic abbreviation should ignore.

902
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Acknowledgments, Screen, Concept Index, Top
@chapter Acknowledgments
Many people have contributed code included in the Free Software
Foundation's distribution of GNU Emacs. To show our appreciation for
their public spirit, we list here those who have written substantial
portions.
@itemize @bullet
@item
Per Abrahamsen wrote the customization buffer facilities, as well as
@file{double.el} for typing accented characters not normally available
from the keyboard, @file{xt-mouse.el} which handles mouse commands
through Xterm, and @file{cpp.el} which hides or highlights parts of C
programs according to preprocessor conditionals.
@item
Jay K. Adams wrote @file{jka-compr.el}, providing automatic
decompression and recompression for compressed files.
@item
Joe Arceneaux wrote the original text property implementation, and
implemented support for X11.
@item
Boaz Ben-Zvi wrote @file{profile.el}, to time Emacs Lisp functions.
@item
Jim Blandy wrote Emacs 19's input system, brought its configuration and
build process up to the GNU coding standards, and contributed to the
frame support and multi-face support.
@item
Terrence M. Brannon wrote @file{landmark.el}, a neural-network robot
that learns landmarks.
@item
Frank Bresz wrote @file{diff.el}, a program to display @code{diff}
output.
@item
Peter Breton implemented @file{dirtrack} which does better tracking of
directory changes in shell buffers, @file{filecache.el} which records
which directories your files are in, @file{locate.el} which interfaces
to the @code{locate} command, @file{net-utils.el}, and the ``generic
mode'' feature.
@item
Kevin Broadey wrote @file{foldout.el}, providing folding extensions to
Emacs's outline modes.
@item
Vincent Broman wrote @file{ada.el}, a mode for editing Ada code
(since replaced by @file{ada-mode.el}).
@item
David M. Brown wrote @file{array.el}, for editing arrays and other
tabular data.
@item
Bill Carpenter provided @file{feedmail.el}.
@item
Hans Chalupsky wrote @file{advice.el}, an overloading mechanism for
Emacs Lisp functions, and @file{trace.el}, a tracing facility for Emacs
Lisp.
@item
Bob Chassell wrote @file{texnfo-upd.el} and @file{makeinfo.el}, modes
and utilities for working with Texinfo files.
@item
James Clark wrote @file{sgml-mode.el}, a mode for editing SGML
documents, and contributed to Emacs's dumping procedures.
@item
Mike Clarkson wrote @file{edt.el}, an emulation of DEC's EDT editor.
@item
Glynn Clements provided @file{gamegrid.el} and a couple of games that
use it, Snake and Tetris.
@item
Andrew Csillag wrote M4 mode (@file{m4-mode.el}).
@item
Doug Cutting and Jamie Zawinski wrote @file{disass.el}, a disassembler
for compiled Emacs Lisp code.
@item
Michael DeCorte wrote @file{emacs.csh}, a C-shell script that starts a
new Emacs job, or restarts a paused Emacs if one exists.
@item
Gary Delp wrote @file{mailpost.el}, an interface between RMAIL and the
@file{/usr/uci/post} mailer.
@item
Matthieu Devin wrote @file{delsel.el}, a package to make newly-typed
text replace the current selection.
@item
Eric Ding contributed @file{goto-addr.el},
@item
Carsten Dominik wrote @file{reftex.el}, a package for setting up
labels and cross-references for La@TeX{}.
@item
Scott Draves wrote @file{tq.el}, help functions for maintaining
transaction queues between Emacs and its subprocesses.
@item
Viktor Dukhovni wrote support for dumping under SunOS version 4.
@item
John Eaton co-wrote Octave mode (@file{octave.el} and related files).
@item
Rolf Ebert co-wrote Ada mode (@file{ada-mode.el}).
@item
Stephen Eglen implemented @file{mspools.el}, for use with Procmail,
which tells you which mail folders have mail waiting in them, and
@file{iswitchb.el}, a feature for incremental reading and completion of
buffer names.
@item
@c iftex
Torbj@"orn
@c end iftex
@c ifinfo
@c Torbjorn
@c end ifinfo
Einarsson contributed F90 mode (@file{f90.el}).
@item
Tsugutomo Enami co-wrote the support for international character sets.
@item
Hans Henrik Eriksen wrote @file{simula.el}, a mode for editing SIMULA 87
code.
@item
Michael Ernst wrote @file{reposition.el}, a command for recentering a
function's source code and preceding comment on the screen.
@item
Ata Etemadi wrote @file{cdl.el}, functions for working with Common Data
Language source code.
@item
Frederick Farnback implemented @file{morse.el}, which converts text to
morse code.
@item
Fred Fish wrote the support for dumping COFF executable files.
@item
Karl Fogel wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{bookmark.el}, for creating named placeholders, saving them and
jumping to them later,
@item
@file{mail-hist.el}, a history mechanism for outgoing mail messages, and
@item
@file{saveplace.el}, for preserving point's location in files between
editing sessions.
@end itemize
@item
Gary Foster wrote the emulation for CRiSP: @file{crisp.el} and
@file{scroll-lock.el}.
@item
Noah Friedman wrote @file{rlogin.el}, an interface to Rlogin, and
@file{type-break.el}, which reminds you to take periodic breaks from
typing. With Roland McGrath, he wrote @file{rsz-mini.el}, a minor mode
to automatically resize the minibuffer to fit the text it contains.
@item
Keith Gabryelski wrote @file{hexl.el}, a mode for editing binary files.
@item
Kevin Gallagher rewrote and enhanced the EDT emulation, and wrote
@file{flow-ctrl.el}, a package for coping with unsuppressible XON/XOFF
flow control.
@item
Kevin Gallo added multiple-frame support for Windows NT.
@item
Howard Gayle wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
the C and lisp code for display tables and case tables,
@item
@file{rot13.el}, a command to display the plaintext form of a buffer
encoded with the Caesar cipher,
@item
much of the support for the ISO-8859 European character set (which
includes @file{iso-ascii.el}, @file{iso-insert.el}, @file{iso-swed.el},
@file{iso-syntax.el}, @file{iso-transl.el}, and @file{swedish.el}), and
@item
@file{vt100-led.el}, a package for controlling the LED's on
VT100-compatible terminals.
@end itemize
@item
Stephen Gildea made the Emacs quick reference card.
@item
David Gillespie wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Emacs 19's Common Lisp compatibility packages, replacing the old package
by Cesar Augusto Quiroz Gonzalez,
@item
@file{complete.el}, a partial completion mechanism, and
@item
@file{edmacro.el}, a package for editing keyboard macros.
@end itemize
@item
Bob Glickstein contributed the @file{sregex.el} feature.
@item
Boris Goldowsky wrote @file{avoid.el}, a package to keep the mouse
cursor out of the way of the text cursor; @file{shadowfile.el}, a
package for keeping identical copies of files in more than one place;
@file{enriched.el}, a package for saving text properties in files;
and @file{facemenu.el}, a package for specifying faces.
@item
Michelangelo Grigni wrote @file{ffap.el} which visits a file,
taking the file name from the buffer.
@item
Odd Gripenstam wrote @file{dcl-mode.el}.
@item
Michael Gschwind wrote @file{iso-cvt.el}, a package to convert between
the ISO 8859-1 character set and the notations for non-@code{ASCII}
characters used by @TeX{} and net tradition.
@item
Henry Guillaume wrote @file{find-file.el}, a package to visit files
related to the currently visited file.
@item
Doug Gwyn wrote the portable @code{alloca} implementation.
@item
Ken'ichi Handa implemented most of the support for international
character sets.
@item
Chris Hanson wrote @file{netuname.el}, a package to use HP-UX's Remote
File Access facility from Emacs.
@item
K. Shane Hartman wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{chistory.el} and @file{echistory.el}, packages for browsing
command history lists,
@item
@file{electric.el} and @file{helper.el}, providing an alternative
command loop and appropriate help facilities,
@item
@file{emacsbug.el}, a package for reporting Emacs bugs,
@item
@file{picture.el}, a mode for editing ASCII pictures, and
@item
@file{view.el}, a package for perusing files and buffers without editing
them.
@end itemize
@item
John Heidemann wrote @file{mouse-copy.el} and @file{mouse-drag.el},
which provide alternative mouse-based editing and scrolling features.
@item
Markus Heritsch co-wrote Ada mode (@file{ada-mode.el}).
@item
Karl Heuer wrote the original blessmail script, implemented the
@code{intangible} text property, and rearranged the structure of the
@code{Lisp_Object} type to allow for more data bits.
@item
Manabu Higashida ported Emacs to the MS-DOS operating system.
@item
Anders Holst wrote @file{hippie-exp.el}, a versatile completion and
expansion package.
@item
Kurt Hornik co-wrote Octave mode (@file{octave.el} and related files).
@item
Tom Houlder wrote @file{mantemp.el}, which generates manual C++ template
instantiations.
@item
Lars Ingebrigtsen did a major redesign of the GNUS newsreader.
@item
Andrew Innes contributed extensively to the Windows NT support.
@item
Kyle Jones wrote @file{life.el}, a package to play Conway's ``life'' game,
and @file{mldrag.el}, a package which allows the user to resize windows
by dragging mode lines and vertical window separators with the mouse.
@item
Tomoji Kagatani implemented @file{smtpmail.el}, used for sending out
mail with SMTP.
@item
David Kaufman wrote @file{yow.c}, an essential utility program for the
hopelessly pinheaded.
@item
Henry Kautz wrote @file{bib-mode.el}, a mode for maintaining
bibliography databases compatible with @code{refer} (the @code{troff}
version) and @code{lookbib}, and @file{refbib.el}, a package to convert
those databases to the format used by the LaTeX text formatting package.
@item
Howard Kaye wrote @file{sort.el}, commands to sort text in Emacs
buffers.
@item
Michael Kifer wrote @file{ediff.el}, an interactive interface to the
@code{diff} and @code{patch} programs, and Viper, the newest emulation
for VI.
@item
Richard King wrote the first version of @file{userlock.el} and
@file{filelock.c}, which provide simple support for multiple users
editing the same file.
@c We're not using his backquote.el any more.
@item
Larry K. Kolodney wrote @file{cvtmail.c}, a program to convert the mail
directories used by Gosling Emacs into RMAIL format.
@item
Robert Krawitz wrote the original @file{xmenu.c}, part of Emacs's pop-up
menu support.
@item
Sebastian Kremer wrote Emacs 19's @code{dired-mode}, with contributions
by Lawrence R. Dodd.
@item
Geoff Kuenning wrote Emacs 19's @file{ispell.el}, based on work by Ken
Stevens and others.
@item
David K@ringaccent{a}gedal wrote @file{tempo.el}, providing support for
easy insertion of boilerplate text and other common constructions.
@item
Daniel LaLiberte wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{edebug.el}, a source-level debugger for Emacs Lisp,
@item
@file{cl-specs.el}, specifications to help @code{edebug} debug code
written using David Gillespie's Common Lisp support,
@item
@file{cust-print.el}, a customizable package for printing lisp objects,
@item
@file{eval-reg.el}, a re-implementation of @code{eval-region} in Emacs
Lisp, and
@item
@file{isearch.el}, Emacs 19's incremental search minor mode.
@end itemize
@item
James R. Larus wrote @file{mh-e.el}, an interface to the MH mail system.
@item
Frederic Lepied contributed @file{expand.el}, which uses the abbrev
mechanism for inserting programming constructs.
@item
Lars Lindberg wrote @file{msb.el}, which provides more flexible menus
for buffer selection, and rewrote @file{dabbrev.el}.
@item
Eric Ludlam wrote the Speedbar package and @file{checkdoc.el}.
@item
Neil M. Mager wrote @file{appt.el}, functions to notify users of their
appointments. It finds appointments recorded in the diary files
generated by Edward M. Reingold's @code{calendar} package.
@item
Ken Manheimer wrote @file{allout.el}, a mode for manipulating and
formatting outlines, and @file{icomplete.el}, which provides incremental
completion feedback in the minibuffer.
@item
Bill Mann wrote @file{perl-mode.el}, a mode for editing Perl code.
@item
Brian Marick and Daniel LaLiberte wrote @file{hideif.el}, support for
hiding selected code within C @code{#ifdef} clauses.
@item
Simon Marshall wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{fast-lock.el}, which caches the face data computed by Font Lock mode,
@item
@file{lazy-lock.el}, which delays fontification in Font Lock mode
until text is actually displayed, and
@item
@file{regexp-opt.el}, which generates a regular expression from a list
of strings.
@end itemize
@item
Bengt Martensson, Mark Shapiro, Mike Newton, Aaron Larson, and Stefan
Schoef, wrote @file{bibtex.el}, a mode for editing Bib@TeX{}
bibliography files.
@item
Charlie Martin wrote @file{autoinsert.el}, which provides automatic
mode-sensitive insertion of text into new files.
@item
Thomas May wrote @file{blackbox.el}, a version of the traditional
blackbox game.
@item
Roland McGrath wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{compile.el}, a package for running compilations in a buffer, and
then visiting the locations reported in error messages,
@item
@file{etags.el}, a package for jumping to function definitions and
searching or replacing in all the files mentioned in a @file{TAGS} file,
@item
@file{find-dired.el}, for using @code{dired} commands on output from the
@code{find} program, with Sebastian Kremer,
@item
@file{map-ynp.el}, a general purpose boolean question-asker,
@item
@file{autoload.el}, providing semi-automatic maintenance of autoload
files, and
@item
@file{upd-copyr.el}, providing semi-automatic maintenance of copyright
notices in source code.
@end itemize
@item
David Megginson wrote @file{derived.el}, which allows one to define new
major modes by inheriting key bindings and commands from existing major
modes.
@item
Wayne Mesard wrote @file{hscroll.el} which does horizontal scrolling
automatically.
@item
Richard Mlynarik wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{cl-indent.el}, a package for indenting Common Lisp code,
@item
@file{ebuff-menu.el}, an ``electric'' browser for buffer listings,
@item
@file{ehelp.el}, bindings for browsing help screens,
@item
@file{rfc822.el}, a parser for E-mail addresses in the RFC-822 format,
used in mail messages and news articles,
@item
@file{terminal.el}, a terminal emulator for Emacs subprocesses, and
@item
@file{yow.el}, an essential utility (try @kbd{M-x yow}).
@end itemize
@item
Keith Moore wrote @file{aixcc.lex}, a pre-processor designed to help
Emacs parse the error messages produced by the AIX C compiler.
@item
Erik Naggum wrote the time-conversion functions, and has tested the
latest source code daily.
@item
Thomas Neumann and Eric Raymond wrote @file{makefile.el}, a mode for
editing makefiles.
@item
Jurgen Nickelsen wrote @file{ws-mode.el}, providing WordStar emulation.
@item
Jeff Norden wrote @file{kermit.el}, a package to help the Kermit
dialup communications program run comfortably in an Emacs shell buffer.
@item
Andrew Norman wrote @file{ange-ftp.el}, providing transparent FTP support.
@item
Jeff Peck wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{emacstool.c}, support for running Emacs under SunView/Sun Windows,
@item
@file{sun-curs.el}, cursor definitions for Sun Windows, and
@item
@file{sun-fns.el}, providing mouse support for Sun Windows.
@end itemize
@item
Damon Anton Permezel wrote @file{hanoi.el}, an animated demonstration of
the ``Towers of Hanoi'' puzzle.
@item
Jens Petersen wrote @file{find-func.el}, which makes it easy to find
the source code for an Emacs Lisp function or variable.
@item
Daniel Pfeiffer wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{executable.el}
@item
@file{sh-script.el}, a mode for editing shell scripts,
@item
@file{skeleton.el}, implementing a concise language for writing
statement skeletons, and
@item
@file{two-column.el}, a minor mode for simultaneous two-column editing.
@end itemize
@item
Fred Pierresteguy and Paul Reilly made Emacs work with X Toolkit
widgets.
@item
Christian Plaunt wrote @file{soundex.el}, an implementation of the
Soundex algorithm for comparing English words by their pronunciation.
@item
Francesco A. Potorti wrote @file{cmacexp.el}, providing a command which
runs the C preprocessor on a region of a file and displays the results.
@item
Michael D. Prange and Steven A. Wood wrote @file{fortran.el}, a mode for
editing FORTRAN code.
@c We're not distributing his tex-mode.el anymore; we're using Ed Reingold's.
@item
Ashwin Ram wrote @file{refer.el}, commands to look up references in
bibliography files by keyword.
@item
Eric S. Raymond wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{vc.el}, an interface to the RCS and SCCS source code version
control systems, with Paul Eggert,
@item
@file{gud.el}, a package for running source-level debuggers like GDB
and SDB in Emacs,
@item
@file{asm-mode.el}, a mode for editing assembly language code,
@item
@file{cookie1.el}, support for ``fortune-cookie'' programs like
@file{yow.el} and @file{spook.el},
@item
@file{finder.el}, a package for finding Emacs Lisp packages by keyword
and topic,
@item
@file{lisp-mnt.el}, functions for working with the special headers used
in Emacs Lisp library files, and
@item
code to set and make use of the @code{load-history} lisp variable, which
records the source file from which each lisp function loaded into Emacs
came.
@end itemize
@item
Edward M. Reingold wrote the extensive calendar and diary support (try
@kbd{M-x calendar}), with contributions from Stewart Clamen, Paul
Eggert, and Lara Rios. Andy Oram contributed to its documentation.
Reingold has also contributed to @file{tex-mode.el}, a mode for editing
@TeX{} files, as have William F. Schelter, Dick King, Stephen Gildea,
Michael Prange, and Jacob Gore.
@item
Rob Riepel contributed @file{tpu-edt.el} and its associated files,
providing an emulation of the VMS TPU text editor emulating the VMS EDT
editor, and @file{vt-control.el}, providing some control functions for
the DEC VT line of terminals.
@item
Roland B. Roberts contributed much of the VMS support distributed with
Emacs 19, along with Joseph M. Kelsey, and @file{vms-pmail.el}, support
for using Emacs within VMS MAIL.
@item
John Robinson wrote @file{bg-mouse.el}, support for the mouse on the BBN
Bitgraph terminal.
@item
Danny Roozendaal implemented @file{handwrite.el}, which converts text
into ``handwriting.''
@item
William Rosenblatt wrote @file{float.el}, implementing a floating-point
numeric type using Lisp cons cells and integers.
@item
Guillermo J. Rozas wrote @file{scheme.el}, a mode for editing Scheme
code, and @file{fakemail.c}, an interface to the System V mailer.
@item
Ivar Rummelhoff provided @file{winner.el}, which records
recent window configurations so you can move back to them.
@item
Wolfgang Rupprecht contributed Emacs 19's floating-point support
(including @file{float-sup.el} and @file{floatfns.c}), and
@file{sup-mouse.el}, support for the Supdup mouse on lisp machines.
@item
James B. Salem and Brewster Kahle wrote @file{completion.el}, providing
dynamic word completion.
@item
Masahiko Sato wrote @file{vip.el}, an emulation of the VI editor.
@item
William Schelter wrote @file{telnet.el}, support for @code{telnet}
sessions within Emacs.
@item
Ralph Schleicher contributed @file{battery.el}, a package for displaying
laptop computer battery status, and @file{info-look.el}, a package for
looking up Info documentation for symbols in the buffer.
@item
Gregor Schmid wrote @file{tcl.el}, a mode for editing Tcl/Tk scripts.
@item
Michael Schmidt and Tom Perrine wrote @file{modula2.el}, a mode for
editing Modula-2 code, based on work by Mick Jordan and Peter Robinson.
@item
Ronald S. Schnell wrote @file{dunnet.el}, a text adventure game.
@item
Philippe Schnoebelen wrote @file{gomoku.el}, a Go Moku game played
against Emacs, and @file{mpuz.el}, a multiplication puzzle.
@item
Randal Schwartz wrote @file{pp.el}, a pretty-printer for lisp objects.
@item
Manuel Serrano contributed the Flyspell package that does spell checking
as you type.
@item
Stanislav Shalunov wrote @file{uce.el}, for responding to unsolicited
commercial email.
@item
Richard Sharman contributed @file{hilit-chg.el}, which uses colors
to inclidate recent editing changes.
@item
Olin Shivers wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{comint.el}, a library for modes running interactive command-line-
oriented subprocesses,
@item
@file{cmuscheme.el}, for running inferior Scheme processes,
@item
@file{inf-lisp.el}, for running inferior Lisp process, and
@item
@file{shell.el}, for running inferior shells.
@end itemize
@item
Sam Shteingold wrote @file{gulp.el}.
@item
Espen Skoglund wrote @file{pascal.el}, a mode for editing Pascal code.
@item
Rick Sladkey wrote @file{backquote.el}, a lisp macro for creating
mostly-constant data.
@item
Lynn Slater wrote @file{help-macro.el}, a macro for writing interactive
help for key bindings.
@item
Chris Smith wrote @file{icon.el}, a mode for editing Icon code.
@item
David Smith wrote @file{ielm.el}, a mode for interacting with the Emacs
Lisp interpreter as a subprocess.
@item
Paul D. Smith wrote @file{snmp-mode.el}.
@item
William Sommerfeld wrote @file{scribe.el}, a mode for editing Scribe
files, and @file{server.el}, a package allowing programs to send files
to an extant Emacs job to be edited.
@item
Michael Staats wrote @file{pc-select.el}, which rebinds keys for
selecting regions to follow many other systems.
@item
Ake Stenhoff and Lars Lindberg wrote @file{imenu.el}, a framework for
browsing indices made from buffer contents.
@item
Peter Stephenson contributed @file{vcursor.el}, which implements a
``virtual cursor'' that you can move with the keyboard and use for
copying text.
@item
Sam Steingold wrote @file{midnight.el}.
@item
Jonathan Stigelman wrote @file{hilit19.el}, a package providing
automatic highlighting in source code buffers, mail readers, and other
contexts.
@item
Steve Strassman did not write @file{spook.el}, and even if he did, he
really didn't mean for you to use it in an anarchistic way.
@item
Jens T. Berger Thielemann wrote @file{word-help.el}, which is
part of the basis for @file{info-look.el}.
@item
Spencer Thomas wrote the original @file{dabbrev.el}, providing a command
which completes the partial word before point, based on other nearby
words for which it is a prefix. He also wrote the original dumping
support.
@item
Jim Thompson wrote @file{ps-print.el}, which converts
Emacs text to Postscript.
@item
Masanobu Umeda wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
GNUS, a featureful reader for Usenet news,
@item
@file{prolog.el}, a mode for editing Prolog code,
@item
@file{rmailsort.el}, a package for sorting messages in RMAIL folders,
@item
@file{metamail.el}, an interface to the Metamail program,
@item
@file{tcp.el}, emulation of the @code{open-network-stream} function for
some Emacs configurations which lack it, and
@item
@file{timezone.el}, providing functions for dealing with time zones.
@end itemize
@item
Neil W. Van Dyke wrote @file{webjump.el}, a ``hot links'' package.
@item
Ulrik Vieth implemented @file{meta-mode.el}, for editing MetaFont code.
@item
Geoffrey Voelker wrote the Windows NT support.
@item
Johan Vromans wrote @file{forms.el} and its associated files, defining a
mode for filling in forms, and @file{iso-acc.el}, a minor mode providing
electric accent keys for text using the ISO-8859 character set.
@item
Barry Warsaw wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{assoc.el}, a set of utility functions for working with association
lists,
@item
@file{cc-mode.el}, a major mode for editing C and C++ code, based on
earlier work by Dave Detlefs, Stewart Clamen, and Richard Stallman,
@item
@file{elp.el}, a new profiler for Emacs Lisp programs.
@item
@file{man.el}, a mode for reading UNIX manual pages,
@item
@file{regi.el}, providing an AWK-like control structure for
use in lisp programs, and
@item
@file{reporter.el}, providing customizable bug reporting for lisp
packages.
@item
@file{supercite.el}, a minor mode for quoting sections of mail messages
and news articles,
@end itemize
@item
Morten Welinder wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{desktop.el}, facilities for saving some of Emacs's state between
sessions,
@item
@file{s-region.el}, commands for setting the region using the shift key
and motion commands, and
@item
@file{dos-fns.el}, functions for use under MS-DOS.
@end itemize
He also helped port Emacs to MS-DOS.
@item
Joseph Brian Wells wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@file{apropos.el}, a command to find commands, functions, and variables
whose names contain matches for a regular expression,
@item
@file{resume.el}, support for processing command-line arguments after
resuming a suspended Emacs job, and
@item
@file{mail-extr.el}, a package for extracting names and addresses from
mail headers, with contributions from Jamie Zawinski.
@end itemize
@item
Rodney Whitby and Reto Zimmermann wrote @file{vhdl-mode.el}.
@item
Ed Wilkinson wrote @file{b2m.c}, a program to convert mail files from
RMAIL format to Unix @code{mbox} format.
@item
Mike Williams wrote @file{mouse-sel.el}, providing enhanced mouse
selection, and @file{thingatpt.el}, a library of functions for finding
the ``thing'' (word, line, s-expression) containing point.
@item
Dale R. Worley wrote @file{emerge.el}, a package for interactively
merging two versions of a file.
@item
Tom Wurgler wrote @file{emacs-lock.el}, which makes it harder
to exit with valuable buffers unsaved.
@item
Eli Zaretskii made many standard Emacs features work on MS-DOS.
@item
Jamie Zawinski wrote:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Emacs 19's optimizing byte compiler, with Hallvard Furuseth,
@item
much of the support for faces and X selections,
@item
@file{mailabbrev.el}, a package providing automatic expansion of mail
aliases, and
@item
@file{tar-mode.el}, providing simple viewing and editing commands for
tar files.
@end itemize
@item
Ian T. Zimmerman wrote @file{gametree.el}.
@item
Neal Ziring and Felix S. T. Wu wrote @file{vi.el}, an emulation of the
VI text editor.
@end itemize
Others too numerous to mention have reported and fixed bugs, and added
features to many parts of Emacs. We thank them for their generosity as
well.
This list intended to mention every contributor of a major package or
feature we currently distribute; if you know of someone we have omitted,
please report that as a manual bug.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1997, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Antinews, MS-DOS, Command Arguments, Top
@appendix Emacs 19 Antinews
For those users who live backwards in time, here is information about
downgrading to Emacs version 19. We hope you will enjoy the greater
simplicity that results from the absence of certain Emacs 20 features.
@itemize @bullet
@item
The multibyte character and end-of-line conversion support have been
eliminated entirely. (Some users consider this a tremendous
improvement.) Character codes are limited to the range 0 through 255
and files imported onto Unix-like systems may have a ^M at the end of
each line to remind you to control MS-DOG type files.
@item
Fontsets, coding systems and input methods have been eliminated as well.
@item
The mode line normally displays the string @samp{Emacs}, in case you
forget what editor you are using.
@item
Scroll bars always appear on the right-hand side of the window.
This clearly separates them from the text in the window.
@item
The @kbd{M-x customize} feature has been replaced with a very simple
feature, @kbd{M-x edit-options}. This shows you @emph{all} the user
options right from the start, so you don't have to hunt for the ones you
want. It also provides a few commands, such as @kbd{s} and @kbd{x}, to
set a user option.
@item
The @key{DELETE} key does nothing special in Emacs 19 when you use it
after selecting a region with the mouse. It does exactly the same thing
in that situation as it does at all other times: delete one character
backwards.
@item
@kbd{C-x C-w} no longer changes the major mode according to the new file
name. If you want to change the mode, use @kbd{M-x normal-mode}.
@item
In Transient Mark mode, each window displays highlighting for the region
as it exists in that window.
@item
Outline mode doesn't use overlay properties; instead, it hides a line by
converting the preceding newline into code 015. Magically, however, if
you save the file, the 015 character appears in the file as a newline.
@item
There is now a clever way you can activate the minibuffer recursively
even if @code{enable-recursive-minibuffers} is @code{nil}. All you have
to do is @emph{switch windows} to a non-minibuffer window, and then use a
minibuffer command. You can pile up any number of minibuffer levels
this way, but @kbd{M-x top-level} will get you out of all of them.
@item
We have removed the limit on the length of minibuffer history lists;
they now contain all the minibuffer arguments you have used since the
beginning of the session.
@item
Dynamic abbrev expansion now handles case conversion in a very simple
and straightforward way. If you have requested preserving case, it
always converts the entire expansion to the case pattern of the abbrev
that you have typed in.
@item
The @code{compose-mail} command does not exist; @kbd{C-x m} now
runs @code{mail} directly.
@item
There is no way to quote a file name with special characters in it.
What you see is what you get: if the name looks remote, it is remote.
@item
@kbd{M-x grep-find} has been eliminated, because @code{grep} has never
been lost.
@ignore
@item
Truth in advertising: @kbd{M-x grep} by default uses @code{grep}, the
whole @code{grep}, and nothing but the @code{grep}. If you want it to
use @code{zgrep}, you'll have to edit the search command by hand.
@end ignore
@item
Some Dired commands have been rearranged: two-character sequences
have been replaced with quick single-character commands:
@itemize @bullet
@item
For @code{dired-mark-executables}, type @kbd{*}.
@item
For @code{dired-mark-directories}, type @kbd{/}.
@item
For @code{dired-mark-symlinks}, type @kbd{@@}.
@item
For @code{dired-change-marks}, type @kbd{c}.
@item
For @code{dired-unmark-all-files}, type @kbd{C-M-?}.
@item
For @code{dired-unmark-all-marks}, type @kbd{C-M-? @key{RET}}.
@end itemize
But if you want to use @code{dired-flag-garbage-files}, @kbd{&}, you'll
just have to stop living in the past.
@item
In C mode, you can now specify your preferred style for block comments.
If you want to use the style
@example
/*
blah
blah
*/
@end example
@noindent
then you should set the variable @code{c-block-comments-indent-p} to
@code{t}.
@item
To customize faces used by Font Lock mode, use the variable
@code{font-lock-face-attributes}. See its documentation string for
details.
@item
For efficiency, Font Lock mode now uses by default the minimum supported
level of decoration for the selected major mode.
@item
If you kill a buffer, any registers holding saved positions in that
buffer are changed to point into limbo.
@item
The function @code{set-frame-font} has been renamed to
@code{set-default-font}.
@item
The variable @code{tex-main-file} doesn't exist. Of course, you can
create the variable by setting it, but that won't do anything special.
@item
The @code{scroll-preserve-screen-position} variable has been eliminated;
and so has the feature that it controls.
@item
We have eliminated the functions @code{add-untranslated-filesystem} and
@code{remove-untranslated-filesystem}, and replaced them with a simpler
function, @code{using-unix-filesystems}.
@item
To keep up with decreasing computer memory capacity, many other
functions and files have been eliminated in Emacs 19. There's no need
to mention them all here. If you try to use one of them, you'll get an
error message to tell you that it is undefined or unbound.
@end itemize

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Basic, Minibuffer, Exiting, Top
@chapter Basic Editing Commands
@kindex C-h t
@findex help-with-tutorial
We now give the basics of how to enter text, make corrections, and
save the text in a file. If this material is new to you, you might
learn it more easily by running the Emacs learn-by-doing tutorial. To
use the tutorial, run Emacs and type @kbd{Control-h t}
(@code{help-with-tutorial}).
To clear the screen and redisplay, type @kbd{C-l} (@code{recenter}).
@menu
* Inserting Text:: Inserting text by simply typing it.
* Moving Point:: How to move the cursor to the place where you want to
change something.
* Erasing:: Deleting and killing text.
* Undo:: Undoing recent changes in the text.
* Files: Basic Files. Visiting, creating, and saving files.
* Help: Basic Help. Asking what a character does.
* Blank Lines:: Commands to make or delete blank lines.
* Continuation Lines:: Lines too wide for the screen.
* Position Info:: What page, line, row, or column is point on?
* Arguments:: Numeric arguments for repeating a command.
* Repeating:: A short-cut for repeating the previous command.
@end menu
@node Inserting Text
@section Inserting Text
@cindex insertion
@cindex graphic characters
To insert printing characters into the text you are editing, just type
them. This inserts the characters you type into the buffer at the
cursor (that is, at @dfn{point}; @pxref{Point}). The cursor moves
forward, and any text after the cursor moves forward too. If the text
in the buffer is @samp{FOOBAR}, with the cursor before the @samp{B},
then if you type @kbd{XX}, you get @samp{FOOXXBAR}, with the cursor
still before the @samp{B}.
To @dfn{delete} text you have just inserted, use @key{DEL}. @key{DEL}
deletes the character @emph{before} the cursor (not the one that the cursor
is on top of or under; that is the character @var{after} the cursor). The
cursor and all characters after it move backwards. Therefore, if you type
a printing character and then type @key{DEL}, they cancel out.
@kindex RET
@cindex newline
To end a line and start typing a new one, type @key{RET}. This
inserts a newline character in the buffer. If point is in the middle of
a line, @key{RET} splits the line. Typing @key{DEL} when the cursor is
at the beginning of a line deletes the preceding newline, thus joining
the line with the preceding line.
Emacs can split lines automatically when they become too long, if you
turn on a special minor mode called @dfn{Auto Fill} mode.
@xref{Filling}, for how to use Auto Fill mode.
If you prefer to have text characters replace (overwrite) existing
text rather than shove it to the right, you can enable Overwrite mode,
a minor mode. @xref{Minor Modes}.
@cindex quoting
@kindex C-q
@findex quoted-insert
Direct insertion works for printing characters and @key{SPC}, but other
characters act as editing commands and do not insert themselves. If you
need to insert a control character or a character whose code is above 200
octal, you must @dfn{quote} it by typing the character @kbd{Control-q}
(@code{quoted-insert}) first. (This character's name is normally written
@kbd{C-q} for short.) There are two ways to use @kbd{C-q}:@refill
@itemize @bullet
@item
@kbd{C-q} followed by any non-graphic character (even @kbd{C-g})
inserts that character.
@item
@kbd{C-q} followed by a sequence of octal digits inserts the character
with the specified octal character code. You can use any number of
octal digits; any non-digit terminates the sequence. If the terminating
character is @key{RET}, it serves only to terminate the sequence; any
other non-digit is itself used as input after terminating the sequence.
(The use of octal sequences is disabled in ordinary non-binary Overwrite
mode, to give you a convenient way to insert a digit instead of
overwriting with it.)
@end itemize
@noindent
When multibyte characters are enabled, octal codes 0200 through 0377 are
not valid as characters; if you specify a code in this range, @kbd{C-q}
assumes that you intend to use some ISO Latin-@var{n} character set, and
converts the specified code to the corresponding Emacs character code.
@xref{Enabling Multibyte}. You select @emph{which} ISO Latin character
set though your choice of language environment (@pxref{Language
Environments}).
@vindex read-quoted-char-radix
To use decimal or hexadecimal instead of octal, set the variable
@code{read-quoted-char-radix} to 10 or 16. If the radix is greater than
10, some letters starting with @kbd{a} serve as part of a character
code, just like digits.
A numeric argument to @kbd{C-q} specifies how many copies of the
quoted character should be inserted (@pxref{Arguments}).
@findex newline
@findex self-insert
Customization information: @key{DEL} in most modes runs the command
@code{delete-backward-char}; @key{RET} runs the command @code{newline}, and
self-inserting printing characters run the command @code{self-insert},
which inserts whatever character was typed to invoke it. Some major modes
rebind @key{DEL} to other commands.
@node Moving Point
@section Changing the Location of Point
@cindex arrow keys
@kindex LEFT
@kindex RIGHT
@kindex UP
@kindex DOWN
@cindex moving point
@cindex movement
@cindex cursor motion
@cindex moving the cursor
To do more than insert characters, you have to know how to move point
(@pxref{Point}). The simplest way to do this is with arrow keys, or by
clicking the left mouse button where you want to move to.
There are also control and meta characters for cursor motion. Some
are equivalent to the arrow keys (these date back to the days before
terminals had arrow keys, and are usable on terminals which don't have
them). Others do more sophisticated things.
@kindex C-a
@kindex C-e
@kindex C-f
@kindex C-b
@kindex C-n
@kindex C-p
@kindex M->
@kindex M-<
@kindex M-r
@findex beginning-of-line
@findex end-of-line
@findex forward-char
@findex backward-char
@findex next-line
@findex previous-line
@findex beginning-of-buffer
@findex end-of-buffer
@findex goto-char
@findex goto-line
@findex move-to-window-line
@table @kbd
@item C-a
Move to the beginning of the line (@code{beginning-of-line}).
@item C-e
Move to the end of the line (@code{end-of-line}).
@item C-f
Move forward one character (@code{forward-char}).
@item C-b
Move backward one character (@code{backward-char}).
@item M-f
Move forward one word (@code{forward-word}).
@item M-b
Move backward one word (@code{backward-word}).
@item C-n
Move down one line, vertically (@code{next-line}). This command
attempts to keep the horizontal position unchanged, so if you start in
the middle of one line, you end in the middle of the next. When on
the last line of text, @kbd{C-n} creates a new line and moves onto it.
@item C-p
Move up one line, vertically (@code{previous-line}).
@item M-r
Move point to left margin, vertically centered in the window
(@code{move-to-window-line}). Text does not move on the screen.
A numeric argument says which screen line to place point on. It counts
screen lines down from the top of the window (zero for the top line). A
negative argument counts lines from the bottom (@minus{}1 for the bottom
line).
@item M-<
Move to the top of the buffer (@code{beginning-of-buffer}). With
numeric argument @var{n}, move to @var{n}/10 of the way from the top.
@xref{Arguments}, for more information on numeric arguments.@refill
@item M->
Move to the end of the buffer (@code{end-of-buffer}).
@item M-x goto-char
Read a number @var{n} and move point to buffer position @var{n}.
Position 1 is the beginning of the buffer.
@item M-x goto-line
Read a number @var{n} and move point to line number @var{n}. Line 1
is the beginning of the buffer.
@item C-x C-n
@findex set-goal-column
@kindex C-x C-n
Use the current column of point as the @dfn{semipermanent goal column} for
@kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} (@code{set-goal-column}). Henceforth, those
commands always move to this column in each line moved into, or as
close as possible given the contents of the line. This goal column remains
in effect until canceled.
@item C-u C-x C-n
Cancel the goal column. Henceforth, @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} once
again try to stick to a fixed horizontal position, as usual.
@end table
@vindex track-eol
If you set the variable @code{track-eol} to a non-@code{nil} value,
then @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} when at the end of the starting line move
to the end of another line. Normally, @code{track-eol} is @code{nil}.
@xref{Variables}, for how to set variables such as @code{track-eol}.
@vindex next-line-add-newlines
Normally, @kbd{C-n} on the last line of a buffer appends a newline to
it. If the variable @code{next-line-add-newlines} is @code{nil}, then
@kbd{C-n} gets an error instead (like @kbd{C-p} on the first line).
@node Erasing
@section Erasing Text
@table @kbd
@item @key{DEL}
Delete the character before point (@code{delete-backward-char}).
@item C-d
Delete the character after point (@code{delete-char}).
@item C-k
Kill to the end of the line (@code{kill-line}).
@item M-d
Kill forward to the end of the next word (@code{kill-word}).
@item M-@key{DEL}
Kill back to the beginning of the previous word
(@code{backward-kill-word}).
@end table
@cindex killing characters and lines
@cindex deleting characters and lines
@cindex erasing characters and lines
You already know about the @key{DEL} key which deletes the character
before point (that is, before the cursor). Another key, @kbd{Control-d}
(@kbd{C-d} for short), deletes the character after point (that is, the
character that the cursor is on). This shifts the rest of the text on
the line to the left. If you type @kbd{C-d} at the end of a line, it
joins together that line and the next line.
To erase a larger amount of text, use the @kbd{C-k} key, which kills a
line at a time. If you type @kbd{C-k} at the beginning or middle of a
line, it kills all the text up to the end of the line. If you type
@kbd{C-k} at the end of a line, it joins that line and the next line.
@xref{Killing}, for more flexible ways of killing text.
@node Undo
@section Undoing Changes
@cindex undo
@cindex changes, undoing
You can undo all the recent changes in the buffer text, up to a
certain point. Each buffer records changes individually, and the undo
command always applies to the current buffer. Usually each editing
command makes a separate entry in the undo records, but some commands
such as @code{query-replace} make many entries, and very simple commands
such as self-inserting characters are often grouped to make undoing less
tedious.
@table @kbd
@item C-x u
Undo one batch of changes---usually, one command worth (@code{undo}).
@item C-_
The same.
@item C-u C-x u
Undo one batch of changes in the region.
@end table
@kindex C-x u
@kindex C-_
@findex undo
The command @kbd{C-x u} or @kbd{C-_} is how you undo. The first time
you give this command, it undoes the last change. Point moves back to
where it was before the command that made the change.
Consecutive repetitions of @kbd{C-_} or @kbd{C-x u} undo earlier and
earlier changes, back to the limit of the undo information available.
If all recorded changes have already been undone, the undo command
prints an error message and does nothing.
Any command other than an undo command breaks the sequence of undo
commands. Starting from that moment, the previous undo commands become
ordinary changes that you can undo. Thus, to redo changes you have
undone, type @kbd{C-f} or any other command that will harmlessly break
the sequence of undoing, then type more undo commands.
@cindex selective undo
@kindex C-u C-x u
Ordinary undo applies to all changes made in the current buffer. You
can also perform @dfn{selective undo}, limited to the current region.
To do this, specify the region you want, then run the @code{undo}
command with a prefix argument (the value does not matter): @kbd{C-u C-x
u} or @kbd{C-u C-_}. This undoes the most recent change in the region.
To undo further changes in the same region, repeat the @code{undo}
command (no prefix argument is needed). In Transient Mark mode, any use
of @code{undo} when there is an active region performs selective undo;
you do not need a prefix argument.
If you notice that a buffer has been modified accidentally, the
easiest way to recover is to type @kbd{C-_} repeatedly until the stars
disappear from the front of the mode line. At this time, all the
modifications you made have been canceled. Whenever an undo command
makes the stars disappear from the mode line, it means that the buffer
contents are the same as they were when the file was last read in or
saved.
If you do not remember whether you changed the buffer deliberately,
type @kbd{C-_} once. When you see the last change you made undone, you
will see whether it was an intentional change. If it was an accident,
leave it undone. If it was deliberate, redo the change as described
above.
Not all buffers record undo information. Buffers whose names start with
spaces don't; these buffers are used internally by Emacs and its extensions
to hold text that users don't normally look at or edit.
You cannot undo mere cursor motion; only changes in the buffer
contents save undo information. However, some cursor motion commands
set the mark, so if you use these commands from time to time, you can
move back to the neighborhoods you have moved through by popping the
mark ring (@pxref{Mark Ring}).
@vindex undo-limit
@vindex undo-strong-limit
@cindex undo limit
When the undo information for a buffer becomes too large, Emacs
discards the oldest undo information from time to time (during garbage
collection). You can specify how much undo information to keep by
setting two variables: @code{undo-limit} and @code{undo-strong-limit}.
Their values are expressed in units of bytes of space.
The variable @code{undo-limit} sets a soft limit: Emacs keeps undo
data for enough commands to reach this size, and perhaps exceed it, but
does not keep data for any earlier commands beyond that. Its default
value is 20000. The variable @code{undo-strong-limit} sets a stricter
limit: the command which pushes the size past this amount is itself
forgotten. Its default value is 30000.
Regardless of the values of those variables, the most recent change is
never discarded, so there is no danger that garbage collection occurring
right after an unintentional large change might prevent you from undoing
it.
The reason the @code{undo} command has two keys, @kbd{C-x u} and
@kbd{C-_}, set up to run it is that it is worthy of a single-character
key, but on some keyboards it is not obvious how to type @kbd{C-_}.
@kbd{C-x u} is an alternative you can type straightforwardly on any
terminal.
@node Basic Files
@section Files
The commands described above are sufficient for creating and altering
text in an Emacs buffer; the more advanced Emacs commands just make
things easier. But to keep any text permanently you must put it in a
@dfn{file}. Files are named units of text which are stored by the
operating system for you to retrieve later by name. To look at or use
the contents of a file in any way, including editing the file with
Emacs, you must specify the file name.
Consider a file named @file{/usr/rms/foo.c}. In Emacs, to begin editing
this file, type
@example
C-x C-f /usr/rms/foo.c @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
Here the file name is given as an @dfn{argument} to the command @kbd{C-x
C-f} (@code{find-file}). That command uses the @dfn{minibuffer} to
read the argument, and you type @key{RET} to terminate the argument
(@pxref{Minibuffer}).@refill
Emacs obeys the command by @dfn{visiting} the file: creating a buffer,
copying the contents of the file into the buffer, and then displaying
the buffer for you to edit. If you alter the text, you can @dfn{save}
the new text in the file by typing @kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{save-buffer}).
This makes the changes permanent by copying the altered buffer contents
back into the file @file{/usr/rms/foo.c}. Until you save, the changes
exist only inside Emacs, and the file @file{foo.c} is unaltered.
To create a file, just visit the file with @kbd{C-x C-f} as if it
already existed. This creates an empty buffer in which you can insert
the text you want to put in the file. The file is actually created when
you save this buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}.
Of course, there is a lot more to learn about using files. @xref{Files}.
@node Basic Help
@section Help
@cindex getting help with keys
If you forget what a key does, you can find out with the Help
character, which is @kbd{C-h} (or @key{F1}, which is an alias for
@kbd{C-h}). Type @kbd{C-h k} followed by the key you want to know
about; for example, @kbd{C-h k C-n} tells you all about what @kbd{C-n}
does. @kbd{C-h} is a prefix key; @kbd{C-h k} is just one of its
subcommands (the command @code{describe-key}). The other subcommands of
@kbd{C-h} provide different kinds of help. Type @kbd{C-h} twice to get
a description of all the help facilities. @xref{Help}.@refill
@node Blank Lines
@section Blank Lines
@cindex inserting blank lines
@cindex deleting blank lines
Here are special commands and techniques for putting in and taking out
blank lines.
@c widecommands
@table @kbd
@item C-o
Insert one or more blank lines after the cursor (@code{open-line}).
@item C-x C-o
Delete all but one of many consecutive blank lines
(@code{delete-blank-lines}).
@end table
@kindex C-o
@kindex C-x C-o
@cindex blank lines
@findex open-line
@findex delete-blank-lines
When you want to insert a new line of text before an existing line, you
can do it by typing the new line of text, followed by @key{RET}.
However, it may be easier to see what you are doing if you first make a
blank line and then insert the desired text into it. This is easy to do
using the key @kbd{C-o} (@code{open-line}), which inserts a newline
after point but leaves point in front of the newline. After @kbd{C-o},
type the text for the new line. @kbd{C-o F O O} has the same effect as
@w{@kbd{F O O @key{RET}}}, except for the final location of point.
You can make several blank lines by typing @kbd{C-o} several times, or
by giving it a numeric argument to tell it how many blank lines to make.
@xref{Arguments}, for how. If you have a fill prefix, then @kbd{C-o}
command inserts the fill prefix on the new line, when you use it at the
beginning of a line. @xref{Fill Prefix}.
The easy way to get rid of extra blank lines is with the command
@kbd{C-x C-o} (@code{delete-blank-lines}). @kbd{C-x C-o} in a run of
several blank lines deletes all but one of them. @kbd{C-x C-o} on a
solitary blank line deletes that blank line. When point is on a
nonblank line, @kbd{C-x C-o} deletes any blank lines following that
nonblank line.
@node Continuation Lines
@section Continuation Lines
@cindex continuation line
@cindex wrapping
@cindex line wrapping
If you add too many characters to one line without breaking it with
@key{RET}, the line will grow to occupy two (or more) lines on the screen,
with a @samp{\} at the extreme right margin of all but the last of them.
The @samp{\} says that the following screen line is not really a distinct
line in the text, but just the @dfn{continuation} of a line too long to fit
the screen. Continuation is also called @dfn{line wrapping}.
Sometimes it is nice to have Emacs insert newlines automatically when
a line gets too long. Continuation on the screen does not do that. Use
Auto Fill mode (@pxref{Filling}) if that's what you want.
@vindex truncate-lines
@cindex truncation
As an alternative to continuation, Emacs can display long lines by
@dfn{truncation}. This means that all the characters that do not fit in
the width of the screen or window do not appear at all. They remain in
the buffer, temporarily invisible. @samp{$} is used in the last column
instead of @samp{\} to inform you that truncation is in effect.
Truncation instead of continuation happens whenever horizontal
scrolling is in use, and optionally in all side-by-side windows
(@pxref{Windows}). You can enable truncation for a particular buffer by
setting the variable @code{truncate-lines} to non-@code{nil} in that
buffer. (@xref{Variables}.) Altering the value of
@code{truncate-lines} makes it local to the current buffer; until that
time, the default value is in effect. The default is initially
@code{nil}. @xref{Locals}.
@xref{Display Vars}, for additional variables that affect how text is
displayed.
@node Position Info
@section Cursor Position Information
Here are commands to get information about the size and position of
parts of the buffer, and to count lines.
@table @kbd
@item M-x what-page
Print page number of point, and line number within page.
@item M-x what-line
Print line number of point in the buffer.
@item M-x line-number-mode
Toggle automatic display of current line number.
@item M-=
Print number of lines in the current region (@code{count-lines-region}).
@xref{Mark}, for information about the region.
@item C-x =
Print character code of character after point, character position of
point, and column of point (@code{what-cursor-position}).
@end table
@findex what-page
@findex what-line
@cindex line number commands
@cindex location of point
@cindex cursor location
@cindex point location
There are two commands for working with line numbers. @kbd{M-x
what-line} computes the current line number and displays it in the echo
area. To go to a given line by number, use @kbd{M-x goto-line}; it
prompts you for the number. These line numbers count from one at the
beginning of the buffer.
You can also see the current line number in the mode line; @xref{Mode
Line}. If you narrow the buffer, then the line number in the mode line
is relative to the accessible portion (@pxref{Narrowing}). By contrast,
@code{what-line} shows both the line number relative to the narrowed
region and the line number relative to the whole buffer.
By contrast, @kbd{M-x what-page} counts pages from the beginning of
the file, and counts lines within the page, printing both numbers.
@xref{Pages}.
@kindex M-=
@findex count-lines-region
While on this subject, we might as well mention @kbd{M-=} (@code{count-lines-region}),
which prints the number of lines in the region (@pxref{Mark}).
@xref{Pages}, for the command @kbd{C-x l} which counts the lines in the
current page.
@kindex C-x =
@findex what-cursor-position
The command @kbd{C-x =} (@code{what-cursor-position}) can be used to find out
the column that the cursor is in, and other miscellaneous information about
point. It prints a line in the echo area that looks like this:
@smallexample
Char: c (0143, 99, 0x63) point=21044 of 26883(78%) column 53
@end smallexample
@noindent
(In fact, this is the output produced when point is before the
@samp{column} in the example.)
The four values after @samp{Char:} describe the character that follows
point, first by showing it and then by giving its character code in
octal, decimal and hex. For a non-ASCII multibyte character, these are
followed by @samp{ext} and the character's representation, in hex, in
the buffer's coding system, if that coding system encodes the character
safely and with a single byte (@pxref{Coding Systems}). If the
character's encoding is longer than one byte, Emacs shows @samp{ext ...}.
@samp{point=} is followed by the position of point expressed as a character
count. The front of the buffer counts as position 1, one character later
as 2, and so on. The next, larger, number is the total number of characters
in the buffer. Afterward in parentheses comes the position expressed as a
percentage of the total size.
@samp{column} is followed by the horizontal position of point, in
columns from the left edge of the window.
If the buffer has been narrowed, making some of the text at the
beginning and the end temporarily inaccessible, @kbd{C-x =} prints
additional text describing the currently accessible range. For example, it
might display this:
@smallexample
Char: C (0103, 67, 0x43) point=252 of 889(28%) <231 - 599> column 0
@end smallexample
@noindent
where the two extra numbers give the smallest and largest character
position that point is allowed to assume. The characters between those
two positions are the accessible ones. @xref{Narrowing}.
If point is at the end of the buffer (or the end of the accessible
part), the @w{@kbd{C-x =}} output does not describe a character after
point. The output might look like this:
@smallexample
point=26957 of 26956(100%) column 0
@end smallexample
@w{@kbd{C-u C-x =}} displays additional information about a character,
in place of the buffer coordinates and column: the character set name
and the codes that identify the character within that character set;
ASCII characters are identified as belonging to the @code{ASCII}
character set. In addition, the full character encoding, even if it
takes more than a single byte, is shown after @samp{ext}. Here's an
example for a Latin-1 character A with a grave accent in a buffer whose
coding system is iso-2022-7bit@footnote{On terminals that support
Latin-1 characters, the character shown after @samp{Char:} is displayed
as the actual glyph of A with grave accent.}:
@example
Char: @`A (04300, 2240, 0x8c0, ext ESC , A @@) (latin-iso8859-1 64)
@end example
@node Arguments
@section Numeric Arguments
@cindex numeric arguments
@cindex prefix arguments
@cindex arguments, numeric
@cindex arguments, prefix
In mathematics and computer usage, the word @dfn{argument} means
``data provided to a function or operation.'' You can give any Emacs
command a @dfn{numeric argument} (also called a @dfn{prefix argument}).
Some commands interpret the argument as a repetition count. For
example, @kbd{C-f} with an argument of ten moves forward ten characters
instead of one. With these commands, no argument is equivalent to an
argument of one. Negative arguments tell most such commands to move or
act in the opposite direction.
@kindex M-1
@kindex M-@t{-}
@findex digit-argument
@findex negative-argument
If your terminal keyboard has a @key{META} key, the easiest way to
specify a numeric argument is to type digits and/or a minus sign while
holding down the @key{META} key. For example,
@example
M-5 C-n
@end example
@noindent
would move down five lines. The characters @kbd{Meta-1}, @kbd{Meta-2},
and so on, as well as @kbd{Meta--}, do this because they are keys bound
to commands (@code{digit-argument} and @code{negative-argument}) that
are defined to contribute to an argument for the next command. Digits
and @kbd{-} modified with Control, or Control and Meta, also specify
numeric arguments.
@kindex C-u
@findex universal-argument
Another way of specifying an argument is to use the @kbd{C-u}
(@code{universal-argument}) command followed by the digits of the
argument. With @kbd{C-u}, you can type the argument digits without
holding down modifier keys; @kbd{C-u} works on all terminals. To type a
negative argument, type a minus sign after @kbd{C-u}. Just a minus sign
without digits normally means @minus{}1.
@kbd{C-u} followed by a character which is neither a digit nor a minus
sign has the special meaning of ``multiply by four.'' It multiplies the
argument for the next command by four. @kbd{C-u} twice multiplies it by
sixteen. Thus, @kbd{C-u C-u C-f} moves forward sixteen characters. This
is a good way to move forward ``fast,'' since it moves about 1/5 of a line
in the usual size screen. Other useful combinations are @kbd{C-u C-n},
@kbd{C-u C-u C-n} (move down a good fraction of a screen), @kbd{C-u C-u
C-o} (make ``a lot'' of blank lines), and @kbd{C-u C-k} (kill four
lines).@refill
Some commands care only about whether there is an argument, and not about
its value. For example, the command @kbd{M-q} (@code{fill-paragraph}) with
no argument fills text; with an argument, it justifies the text as well.
(@xref{Filling}, for more information on @kbd{M-q}.) Plain @kbd{C-u} is a
handy way of providing an argument for such commands.
Some commands use the value of the argument as a repeat count, but do
something peculiar when there is no argument. For example, the command
@kbd{C-k} (@code{kill-line}) with argument @var{n} kills @var{n} lines,
including their terminating newlines. But @kbd{C-k} with no argument is
special: it kills the text up to the next newline, or, if point is right at
the end of the line, it kills the newline itself. Thus, two @kbd{C-k}
commands with no arguments can kill a nonblank line, just like @kbd{C-k}
with an argument of one. (@xref{Killing}, for more information on
@kbd{C-k}.)@refill
A few commands treat a plain @kbd{C-u} differently from an ordinary
argument. A few others may treat an argument of just a minus sign
differently from an argument of @minus{}1. These unusual cases are
described when they come up; they are always for reasons of convenience
of use of the individual command.
You can use a numeric argument to insert multiple copies of a
character. This is straightforward unless the character is a digit; for
example, @kbd{C-u 6 4 a} inserts 64 copies of the character @samp{a}.
But this does not work for inserting digits; @kbd{C-u 6 4 1} specifies
an argument of 641, rather than inserting anything. To separate the
digit to insert from the argument, type another @kbd{C-u}; for example,
@kbd{C-u 6 4 C-u 1} does insert 64 copies of the character @samp{1}.
We use the term ``prefix argument'' as well as ``numeric argument'' to
emphasize that you type the argument before the command, and to
distinguish these arguments from minibuffer arguments that come after
the command.
@node Repeating
@section Repeating a Command
@cindex repeating a command
@kindex C-x z
@findex repeat
The command @kbd{C-x z} (@code{repeat}) provides another way to repeat
an Emacs command many times. This command repeats the previous Emacs
command, whatever that was. Repeating a command uses the same arguments
that were used before; it does not read new arguments each time.
To repeat the command more than once, type additional @kbd{z}'s: each
@kbd{z} repeats the command one more time. Repetition ends when you
type a character other than @kbd{z}, or press a mouse button.
For example, suppose you type @kbd{C-u 2 0 C-d} to delete 20
characters. You can repeat that command (including its argument) three
additional times, to delete a total of 80 characters, by typing @kbd{C-x
z z z}. The first @kbd{C-x z} repeats the command once, and each
subsequent @kbd{z} repeats it once again.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Buffers, Windows, Files, Top
@chapter Using Multiple Buffers
@cindex buffers
The text you are editing in Emacs resides in an object called a
@dfn{buffer}. Each time you visit a file, a buffer is created to hold the
file's text. Each time you invoke Dired, a buffer is created to hold the
directory listing. If you send a message with @kbd{C-x m}, a buffer named
@samp{*mail*} is used to hold the text of the message. When you ask for a
command's documentation, that appears in a buffer called @samp{*Help*}.
@cindex selected buffer
@cindex current buffer
At any time, one and only one buffer is @dfn{selected}. It is also
called the @dfn{current buffer}. Often we say that a command operates on
``the buffer'' as if there were only one; but really this means that the
command operates on the selected buffer (most commands do).
When Emacs has multiple windows, each window has a chosen buffer which
is displayed there, but at any time only one of the windows is selected and
its chosen buffer is the selected buffer. Each window's mode line displays
the name of the buffer that the window is displaying (@pxref{Windows}).
Each buffer has a name, which can be of any length, and you can select
any buffer by giving its name. Most buffers are made by visiting files,
and their names are derived from the files' names. But you can also create
an empty buffer with any name you want. A newly started Emacs has a buffer
named @samp{*scratch*} which can be used for evaluating Lisp expressions in
Emacs. The distinction between upper and lower case matters in buffer
names.
Each buffer records individually what file it is visiting, whether it is
modified, and what major mode and minor modes are in effect in it
(@pxref{Major Modes}). Any Emacs variable can be made @dfn{local to} a
particular buffer, meaning its value in that buffer can be different from
the value in other buffers. @xref{Locals}.
@menu
* Select Buffer:: Creating a new buffer or reselecting an old one.
* List Buffers:: Getting a list of buffers that exist.
* Misc Buffer:: Renaming; changing read-onlyness; copying text.
* Kill Buffer:: Killing buffers you no longer need.
* Several Buffers:: How to go through the list of all buffers
and operate variously on several of them.
* Indirect Buffers:: An indirect buffer shares the text of another buffer.
@end menu
@node Select Buffer
@section Creating and Selecting Buffers
@cindex change buffers
@cindex switch buffers
@table @kbd
@item C-x b @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Select or create a buffer named @var{buffer} (@code{switch-to-buffer}).
@item C-x 4 b @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Similar, but select @var{buffer} in another window
(@code{switch-to-buffer-other-window}).
@item C-x 5 b @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Similar, but select @var{buffer} in a separate frame
(@code{switch-to-buffer-other-frame}).
@end table
@kindex C-x 4 b
@findex switch-to-buffer-other-window
@kindex C-x 5 b
@findex switch-to-buffer-other-frame
@kindex C-x b
@findex switch-to-buffer
To select the buffer named @var{bufname}, type @kbd{C-x b @var{bufname}
@key{RET}}. This runs the command @code{switch-to-buffer} with argument
@var{bufname}. You can use completion on an abbreviation for the buffer
name you want (@pxref{Completion}). An empty argument to @kbd{C-x b}
specifies the most recently selected buffer that is not displayed in any
window.@refill
Most buffers are created by visiting files, or by Emacs commands that
want to display some text, but you can also create a buffer explicitly
by typing @kbd{C-x b @var{bufname} @key{RET}}. This makes a new, empty
buffer that is not visiting any file, and selects it for editing. Such
buffers are used for making notes to yourself. If you try to save one,
you are asked for the file name to use. The new buffer's major mode is
determined by the value of @code{default-major-mode} (@pxref{Major
Modes}).
Note that @kbd{C-x C-f}, and any other command for visiting a file,
can also be used to switch to an existing file-visiting buffer.
@xref{Visiting}.
Emacs uses buffer names that start with a space for internal purposes.
It treats these buffers specially in minor ways---for example, by
default they do not record undo information. It is best to avoid using
such buffer names yourself.
@node List Buffers
@section Listing Existing Buffers
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-b
List the existing buffers (@code{list-buffers}).
@end table
@cindex listing current buffers
@kindex C-x C-b
@findex list-buffers
To display a list of all the buffers that exist, type @kbd{C-x C-b}.
Each line in the list shows one buffer's name, major mode and visited
file. The buffers are listed in the order that they were current; the
buffers that were current most recently come first.
@samp{*} at the beginning of a line indicates the buffer is ``modified.''
If several buffers are modified, it may be time to save some with @kbd{C-x s}
(@pxref{Saving}). @samp{%} indicates a read-only buffer. @samp{.} marks the
selected buffer. Here is an example of a buffer list:@refill
@smallexample
MR Buffer Size Mode File
-- ------ ---- ---- ----
.* emacs.tex 383402 Texinfo /u2/emacs/man/emacs.tex
*Help* 1287 Fundamental
files.el 23076 Emacs-Lisp /u2/emacs/lisp/files.el
% RMAIL 64042 RMAIL /u/rms/RMAIL
*% man 747 Dired /u2/emacs/man/
net.emacs 343885 Fundamental /u/rms/net.emacs
fileio.c 27691 C /u2/emacs/src/fileio.c
NEWS 67340 Text /u2/emacs/etc/NEWS
*scratch* 0 Lisp Interaction
@end smallexample
@noindent
Note that the buffer @samp{*Help*} was made by a help request; it is not
visiting any file. The buffer @code{man} was made by Dired on the
directory @file{/u2/emacs/man/}.
@need 2000
@node Misc Buffer
@section Miscellaneous Buffer Operations
@table @kbd
@item C-x C-q
Toggle read-only status of buffer (@code{vc-toggle-read-only}).
@item M-x rename-buffer @key{RET} @var{name} @key{RET}
Change the name of the current buffer.
@item M-x rename-uniquely
Rename the current buffer by adding @samp{<@var{number}>} to the end.
@item M-x view-buffer @key{RET} @var{buffer} @key{RET}
Scroll through buffer @var{buffer}.
@end table
@kindex C-x C-q
@findex vc-toggle-read-only
@vindex buffer-read-only
@cindex read-only buffer
A buffer can be @dfn{read-only}, which means that commands to change
its contents are not allowed. The mode line indicates read-only buffers
with @samp{%%} or @samp{%*} near the left margin. Read-only buffers are
usually made by subsystems such as Dired and Rmail that have special
commands to operate on the text; also by visiting a file whose access
control says you cannot write it.
If you wish to make changes in a read-only buffer, use the command
@kbd{C-x C-q} (@code{vc-toggle-read-only}). It makes a read-only buffer
writable, and makes a writable buffer read-only. In most cases, this
works by setting the variable @code{buffer-read-only}, which has a local
value in each buffer and makes the buffer read-only if its value is
non-@code{nil}. If the file is maintained with version control,
@kbd{C-x C-q} works through the version control system to change the
read-only status of the file as well as the buffer. @xref{Version
Control}.
@findex rename-buffer
@kbd{M-x rename-buffer} changes the name of the current buffer. Specify
the new name as a minibuffer argument. There is no default. If you
specify a name that is in use for some other buffer, an error happens and
no renaming is done.
@kbd{M-x rename-uniquely} renames the current buffer to a similar name
with a numeric suffix added to make it both different and unique. This
command does not need an argument. It is useful for creating multiple
shell buffers: if you rename the @samp{*Shell*} buffer, then do @kbd{M-x
shell} again, it makes a new shell buffer named @samp{*Shell*};
meanwhile, the old shell buffer continues to exist under its new name.
This method is also good for mail buffers, compilation buffers, and most
Emacs features that create special buffers with particular names.
@findex view-buffer
@kbd{M-x view-buffer} is much like @kbd{M-x view-file} (@pxref{Misc
File Ops}) except that it examines an already existing Emacs buffer.
View mode provides commands for scrolling through the buffer
conveniently but not for changing it. When you exit View mode with
@kbd{q}, that switches back to the buffer (and the position) which was
previously displayed in the window. Alternatively, if you exit View
mode with @kbd{e}, the buffer and the value of point that resulted from
your perusal remain in effect.
The commands @kbd{M-x append-to-buffer} and @kbd{M-x insert-buffer}
can be used to copy text from one buffer to another. @xref{Accumulating
Text}.@refill
@node Kill Buffer
@section Killing Buffers
@cindex killing buffers
If you continue an Emacs session for a while, you may accumulate a
large number of buffers. You may then find it convenient to @dfn{kill}
the buffers you no longer need. On most operating systems, killing a
buffer releases its space back to the operating system so that other
programs can use it. Here are some commands for killing buffers:
@c WideCommands
@table @kbd
@item C-x k @var{bufname} @key{RET}
Kill buffer @var{bufname} (@code{kill-buffer}).
@item M-x kill-some-buffers
Offer to kill each buffer, one by one.
@end table
@findex kill-buffer
@findex kill-some-buffers
@kindex C-x k
@kbd{C-x k} (@code{kill-buffer}) kills one buffer, whose name you
specify in the minibuffer. The default, used if you type just @key{RET}
in the minibuffer, is to kill the current buffer. If you kill the
current buffer, another buffer is selected; one that has been selected
recently but does not appear in any window now. If you ask to kill a
file-visiting buffer that is modified (has unsaved editing), then you
must confirm with @kbd{yes} before the buffer is killed.
The command @kbd{M-x kill-some-buffers} asks about each buffer, one by
one. An answer of @kbd{y} means to kill the buffer. Killing the current
buffer or a buffer containing unsaved changes selects a new buffer or asks
for confirmation just like @code{kill-buffer}.
The buffer menu feature (@pxref{Several Buffers}) is also convenient
for killing various buffers.
@vindex kill-buffer-hook
If you want to do something special every time a buffer is killed, you
can add hook functions to the hook @code{kill-buffer-hook} (@pxref{Hooks}).
@findex clean-buffer-list
If you run one Emacs session for a period of days, as many people do,
it can fill up with buffers that you used several days ago. The command
@kbd{M-x clean-buffer-list} is a convenient way to purge them; it kills
all the unmodified buffers that you have not used for a long time. An
ordinary buffer is killed if it has not been displayed for three days;
however, you can specify certain buffers that should never be killed
automatically, and others that should be killed if they have been unused
for a mere hour.
@cindex Midnight mode
@vindex midnight-mode
@vindex midnight-hook
You can also have this buffer purging done for you, every day at
midnight, by enabling Midnight mode. Midnight mode operates each day at
midnight; at that time, it runs @code{clean-buffer-list}, or whichever
functions you have placed in the normal hook @code{midnight-hook}
(@pxref{Hooks}).
To enable Midnight mode, use the Customization buffer to set the
variable @code{midnight-mode} to @code{t}. @xref{Easy Customization}.
@node Several Buffers
@section Operating on Several Buffers
@cindex buffer menu
The @dfn{buffer-menu} facility is like a ``Dired for buffers''; it allows
you to request operations on various Emacs buffers by editing an Emacs
buffer containing a list of them. You can save buffers, kill them
(here called @dfn{deleting} them, for consistency with Dired), or display
them.
@table @kbd
@item M-x buffer-menu
Begin editing a buffer listing all Emacs buffers.
@end table
@findex buffer-menu
The command @code{buffer-menu} writes a list of all Emacs buffers into
the buffer @samp{*Buffer List*}, and selects that buffer in Buffer Menu
mode. The buffer is read-only, and can be changed only through the
special commands described in this section. The usual Emacs cursor
motion commands can be used in the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer. The
following commands apply to the buffer described on the current line.
@table @kbd
@item d
Request to delete (kill) the buffer, then move down. The request
shows as a @samp{D} on the line, before the buffer name. Requested
deletions take place when you type the @kbd{x} command.
@item C-d
Like @kbd{d} but move up afterwards instead of down.
@item s
Request to save the buffer. The request shows as an @samp{S} on the
line. Requested saves take place when you type the @kbd{x} command.
You may request both saving and deletion for the same buffer.
@item x
Perform previously requested deletions and saves.
@item u
Remove any request made for the current line, and move down.
@item @key{DEL}
Move to previous line and remove any request made for that line.
@end table
The @kbd{d}, @kbd{C-d}, @kbd{s} and @kbd{u} commands to add or remove
flags also move down (or up) one line. They accept a numeric argument
as a repeat count.
These commands operate immediately on the buffer listed on the current
line:
@table @kbd
@item ~
Mark the buffer ``unmodified.'' The command @kbd{~} does this
immediately when you type it.
@item %
Toggle the buffer's read-only flag. The command @kbd{%} does
this immediately when you type it.
@item t
Visit the buffer as a tags table. @xref{Select Tags Table}.
@end table
There are also commands to select another buffer or buffers:
@table @kbd
@item q
Quit the buffer menu---immediately display the most recent formerly
visible buffer in its place.
@item @key{RET}
@itemx f
Immediately select this line's buffer in place of the @samp{*Buffer
List*} buffer.
@item o
Immediately select this line's buffer in another window as if by
@kbd{C-x 4 b}, leaving @samp{*Buffer List*} visible.
@item C-o
Immediately display this line's buffer in another window, but don't
select the window.
@item 1
Immediately select this line's buffer in a full-screen window.
@item 2
Immediately set up two windows, with this line's buffer in one, and the
previously selected buffer (aside from the buffer @samp{*Buffer List*})
in the other.
@item b
Bury the buffer listed on this line.
@item m
Mark this line's buffer to be displayed in another window if you exit
with the @kbd{v} command. The request shows as a @samp{>} at the
beginning of the line. (A single buffer may not have both a delete
request and a display request.)
@item v
Immediately select this line's buffer, and also display in other windows
any buffers previously marked with the @kbd{m} command. If you have not
marked any buffers, this command is equivalent to @kbd{1}.
@end table
All that @code{buffer-menu} does directly is create and switch to a
suitable buffer, and turn on Buffer Menu mode. Everything else
described above is implemented by the special commands provided in
Buffer Menu mode. One consequence of this is that you can switch from
the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer to another Emacs buffer, and edit there.
You can reselect the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer later, to perform the
operations already requested, or you can kill it, or pay no further
attention to it.
The only difference between @code{buffer-menu} and @code{list-buffers}
is that @code{buffer-menu} switches to the @samp{*Buffer List*} buffer
in the selected window; @code{list-buffers} displays it in another
window. If you run @code{list-buffers} (that is, type @kbd{C-x C-b})
and select the buffer list manually, you can use all of the commands
described here.
The buffer @samp{*Buffer List*} is not updated automatically when
buffers are created and killed; its contents are just text. If you have
created, deleted or renamed buffers, the way to update @samp{*Buffer
List*} to show what you have done is to type @kbd{g}
(@code{revert-buffer}) or repeat the @code{buffer-menu} command.
@node Indirect Buffers
@section Indirect Buffers
@cindex indirect buffer
@cindex base buffer
An @dfn{indirect buffer} shares the text of some other buffer, which
is called the @dfn{base buffer} of the indirect buffer. In some ways it
is the analogue, for buffers, of a symbolic link between files.
@table @kbd
@findex make-indirect-buffer
@item M-x make-indirect-buffer @var{base-buffer} @key{RET} @var{indirect-name} @key{RET}
Create an indirect buffer named @var{indirect-name} whose base buffer
is @var{base-buffer}.
@end table
The text of the indirect buffer is always identical to the text of its
base buffer; changes made by editing either one are visible immediately
in the other. But in all other respects, the indirect buffer and its
base buffer are completely separate. They have different names,
different values of point, different narrowing, different markers,
different major modes, and different local variables.
An indirect buffer cannot visit a file, but its base buffer can. If
you try to save the indirect buffer, that actually works by saving the
base buffer. Killing the base buffer effectively kills the indirect
buffer, but killing an indirect buffer has no effect on its base buffer.
One way to use indirect buffers is to display multiple views of an
outline. @xref{Outline Views}.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Building, Abbrevs, Programs, Top
@chapter Compiling and Testing Programs
@cindex building programs
@cindex program building
@cindex running Lisp functions
The previous chapter discusses the Emacs commands that are useful for
making changes in programs. This chapter deals with commands that assist
in the larger process of developing and maintaining programs.
@menu
* Compilation:: Compiling programs in languages other
than Lisp (C, Pascal, etc.).
* Grep Searching:: Running grep as if it were a compiler.
* Compilation Mode:: The mode for visiting compiler errors.
* Compilation Shell:: Customizing your shell properly
for use in the compilation buffer.
* Debuggers:: Running symbolic debuggers for non-Lisp programs.
* Executing Lisp:: Various modes for editing Lisp programs,
with different facilities for running
the Lisp programs.
* Libraries: Lisp Libraries. Creating Lisp programs to run in Emacs.
* Interaction: Lisp Interaction. Executing Lisp in an Emacs buffer.
* Eval: Lisp Eval. Executing a single Lisp expression in Emacs.
* External Lisp:: Communicating through Emacs with a separate Lisp.
@end menu
@node Compilation
@section Running Compilations under Emacs
@cindex inferior process
@cindex make
@cindex compilation errors
@cindex error log
Emacs can run compilers for noninteractive languages such as C and
Fortran as inferior processes, feeding the error log into an Emacs buffer.
It can also parse the error messages and show you the source lines where
compilation errors occurred.
@table @kbd
@item M-x compile
Run a compiler asynchronously under Emacs, with error messages to
@samp{*compilation*} buffer.
@item M-x grep
Run @code{grep} asynchronously under Emacs, with matching lines
listed in the buffer named @samp{*grep*}.
@item M-x grep-find
Run @code{grep} via @code{find}, with user-specified arguments, and
collect output in the buffer named @samp{*grep*}.
@item M-x kill-compilation
@itemx M-x kill-grep
Kill the running compilation or @code{grep} subprocess.
@end table
@findex compile
To run @code{make} or another compilation command, do @kbd{M-x
compile}. This command reads a shell command line using the minibuffer,
and then executes the command in an inferior shell, putting output in
the buffer named @samp{*compilation*}. The current buffer's default
directory is used as the working directory for the execution of the
command; normally, therefore, the compilation happens in this
directory.
@vindex compile-command
When the shell command line is read, the minibuffer appears containing
a default command line, which is the command you used the last time you
did @kbd{M-x compile}. If you type just @key{RET}, the same command
line is used again. For the first @kbd{M-x compile}, the default is
@samp{make -k}. The default compilation command comes from the variable
@code{compile-command}; if the appropriate compilation command for a
file is something other than @samp{make -k}, it can be useful for the
file to specify a local value for @code{compile-command} (@pxref{File
Variables}).
Starting a compilation displays the buffer @samp{*compilation*} in
another window but does not select it. The buffer's mode line tells you
whether compilation is finished, with the word @samp{run} or @samp{exit}
inside the parentheses. You do not have to keep this buffer visible;
compilation continues in any case. While a compilation is going on, the
string @samp{Compiling} appears in the mode lines of all windows. When
this string disappears, the compilation is finished.
If you want to watch the compilation transcript as it appears, switch
to the @samp{*compilation*} buffer and move point to the end of the
buffer. When point is at the end, new compilation output is inserted
above point, which remains at the end. If point is not at the end of
the buffer, it remains fixed while more compilation output is added at
the end of the buffer.
@vindex compilation-scroll-output
If you set the variable @code{compilation-scroll-output} to a
non-@code{nil} value, then the compilation buffer always scrolls to
follow output as it comes in.
@findex kill-compilation
To kill the compilation process, do @kbd{M-x kill-compilation}. When
the compiler process terminates, the mode line of the
@samp{*compilation*} buffer changes to say @samp{signal} instead of
@samp{run}. Starting a new compilation also kills any running
compilation, as only one can exist at any time. However, @kbd{M-x
compile} asks for confirmation before actually killing a compilation
that is running.
@node Grep Searching
@section Searching with Grep under Emacs
@findex grep
Just as you can run a compiler from Emacs and then visit the lines
where there were compilation errors, you can also run @code{grep} and
then visit the lines on which matches were found. This works by
treating the matches reported by @code{grep} as if they were ``errors.''
To do this, type @kbd{M-x grep}, then enter a command line that
specifies how to run @code{grep}. Use the same arguments you would give
@code{grep} when running it normally: a @code{grep}-style regexp
(usually in single-quotes to quote the shell's special characters)
followed by file names, which may use wildcards. The output from
@code{grep} goes in the @samp{*grep*} buffer. You can find the
corresponding lines in the original files using @kbd{C-x `} and
@key{RET}, as with compilation errors.
If you specify a prefix argument for @kbd{M-x grep}, it figures out
the tag (@pxref{Tags}) around point, and puts that into the default
@code{grep} command.
@findex grep-find
The command @kbd{M-x grep-find} is similar to @kbd{M-x grep}, but it
supplies a different initial default for the command---one that runs
both @code{find} and @code{grep}, so as to search every file in a
directory tree. See also the @code{find-grep-dired} command,
in @ref{Dired and Find}.
@node Compilation Mode
@section Compilation Mode
@findex compile-goto-error
@cindex Compilation mode
@cindex mode, Compilation
The @samp{*compilation*} buffer uses a special major mode, Compilation
mode, whose main feature is to provide a convenient way to look at the
source line where the error happened.
@table @kbd
@item C-x `
Visit the locus of the next compiler error message or @code{grep} match.
@item @key{RET}
Visit the locus of the error message that point is on.
This command is used in the compilation buffer.
@item Mouse-2
Visit the locus of the error message that you click on.
@end table
@kindex C-x `
@findex next-error
You can visit the source for any particular error message by moving
point in @samp{*compilation*} to that error message and typing @key{RET}
(@code{compile-goto-error}). Or click @kbd{Mouse-2} on the error message;
you need not switch to the @samp{*compilation*} buffer first.
To parse the compiler error messages sequentially, type @kbd{C-x `}
(@code{next-error}). The character following the @kbd{C-x} is the
backquote or ``grave accent,'' not the single-quote. This command is
available in all buffers, not just in @samp{*compilation*}; it displays
the next error message at the top of one window and source location of
the error in another window.
The first time @kbd{C-x `} is used after the start of a compilation,
it moves to the first error's location. Subsequent uses of @kbd{C-x `}
advance down to subsequent errors. If you visit a specific error
message with @key{RET} or @kbd{Mouse-2}, subsequent @kbd{C-x `}
commands advance from there. When @kbd{C-x `} gets to the end of the
buffer and finds no more error messages to visit, it fails and signals
an Emacs error.
@kbd{C-u C-x `} starts scanning from the beginning of the compilation
buffer. This is one way to process the same set of errors again.
Compilation mode also redefines the keys @key{SPC} and @key{DEL} to
scroll by screenfuls, and @kbd{M-n} and @kbd{M-p} to move to the next or
previous error message. You can also use @kbd{M-@{} and @kbd{M-@}} to
move up or down to an error message for a different source file.
The features of Compilation mode are also available in a minor mode
called Compilation Minor mode. This lets you parse error messages in
any buffer, not just a normal compilation output buffer. Type @kbd{M-x
compilation-minor-mode} to enable the minor mode. This defines the keys
@key{RET} and @kbd{Mouse-2}, as in the Compilation major mode.
Compilation minor mode works in any buffer, as long as the contents
are in a format that it understands. In an Rlogin buffer (@pxref{Remote
Host}), Compilation minor mode automatically accesses remote source
files by FTP (@pxref{File Names}).
@node Compilation Shell
@section Subshells for Compilation
Emacs uses a shell to run the compilation command, but specifies
the option for a noninteractive shell. This means, in particular, that
the shell should start with no prompt. If you find your usual shell
prompt making an unsightly appearance in the @samp{*compilation*}
buffer, it means you have made a mistake in your shell's init file by
setting the prompt unconditionally. (This init file's name may be
@file{.bashrc}, @file{.profile}, @file{.cshrc}, @file{.shrc}, or various
other things, depending on the shell you use.) The shell init file
should set the prompt only if there already is a prompt. In csh, here
is how to do it:
@example
if ($?prompt) set prompt = @dots{}
@end example
@noindent
And here's how to do it in bash:
@example
if [ "$@{PS1+set@}" = set ]
then PS1=@dots{}
fi
@end example
There may well be other things that your shell's init file
ought to do only for an interactive shell. You can use the same
method to conditionalize them.
The MS-DOS ``operating system'' does not support asynchronous
subprocesses; to work around this lack, @kbd{M-x compile} runs the
compilation command synchronously on MS-DOS. As a consequence, you must
wait until the command finishes before you can do anything else in
Emacs. @xref{MS-DOS}.
@node Debuggers
@section Running Debuggers Under Emacs
@cindex debuggers
@cindex GUD library
@cindex GDB
@cindex DBX
@cindex SDB
@cindex XDB
@cindex Perldb
@cindex JDB
@cindex PDB
@c Do you believe in GUD?
The GUD (Grand Unified Debugger) library provides an interface to
various symbolic debuggers from within Emacs. We recommend the debugger
GDB, which is free software, but you can also run DBX, SDB or XDB if you
have them. GUD can also serve as an interface to the Perl's debugging
mode, the Python debugger PDB, and to JDB, the Java Debugger.
@menu
* Starting GUD:: How to start a debugger subprocess.
* Debugger Operation:: Connection between the debugger and source buffers.
* Commands of GUD:: Key bindings for common commands.
* GUD Customization:: Defining your own commands for GUD.
@end menu
@node Starting GUD
@subsection Starting GUD
There are several commands for starting a debugger, each corresponding
to a particular debugger program.
@table @kbd
@item M-x gdb @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex gdb
Run GDB as a subprocess of Emacs. This command creates a buffer for
input and output to GDB, and switches to it. If a GDB buffer already
exists, it just switches to that buffer.
@item M-x dbx @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex dbx
Similar, but run DBX instead of GDB.
@item M-x xdb @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex xdb
@vindex gud-xdb-directories
Similar, but run XDB instead of GDB. Use the variable
@code{gud-xdb-directories} to specify directories to search for source
files.
@item M-x sdb @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex sdb
Similar, but run SDB instead of GDB.
Some versions of SDB do not mention source file names in their
messages. When you use them, you need to have a valid tags table
(@pxref{Tags}) in order for GUD to find functions in the source code.
If you have not visited a tags table or the tags table doesn't list one
of the functions, you get a message saying @samp{The sdb support
requires a valid tags table to work}. If this happens, generate a valid
tags table in the working directory and try again.
@item M-x perldb @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex perldb
Run the Perl interpreter in debug mode to debug @var{file}, a Perl program.
@item M-x jdb @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex jdb
Run the Java debugger to debug @var{file}.
@item M-x pdb @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}
@findex pdb
Run the Python debugger to debug @var{file}.
@end table
Each of these commands takes one argument: a command line to invoke
the debugger. In the simplest case, specify just the name of the
executable file you want to debug. You may also use options that the
debugger supports. However, shell wildcards and variables are not
allowed. GUD assumes that the first argument not starting with a
@samp{-} is the executable file name.
Emacs can only run one debugger process at a time.
@node Debugger Operation
@subsection Debugger Operation
When you run a debugger with GUD, the debugger uses an Emacs buffer
for its ordinary input and output. This is called the GUD buffer. The
debugger displays the source files of the program by visiting them in
Emacs buffers. An arrow (@samp{=>}) in one of these buffers indicates
the current execution line. Moving point in this buffer does not move
the arrow.
You can start editing these source files at any time in the buffers
that were made to display them. The arrow is not part of the file's
text; it appears only on the screen. If you do modify a source file,
keep in mind that inserting or deleting lines will throw off the arrow's
positioning; GUD has no way of figuring out which line corresponded
before your changes to the line number in a debugger message. Also,
you'll typically have to recompile and restart the program for your
changes to be reflected in the debugger's tables.
If you wish, you can control your debugger process entirely through the
debugger buffer, which uses a variant of Shell mode. All the usual
commands for your debugger are available, and you can use the Shell mode
history commands to repeat them. @xref{Shell Mode}.
@node Commands of GUD
@subsection Commands of GUD
The GUD interaction buffer uses a variant of Shell mode, so the
commands of Shell mode are available (@pxref{Shell Mode}). GUD mode
also provides commands for setting and clearing breakpoints, for
selecting stack frames, and for stepping through the program. These
commands are available both in the GUD buffer and globally, but with
different key bindings.
The breakpoint commands are usually used in source file buffers,
because that is the way to specify where to set or clear the breakpoint.
Here's the global command to set a breakpoint:
@table @kbd
@item C-x @key{SPC}
@kindex C-x SPC
Set a breakpoint on the source line that point is on.
@end table
@kindex C-x C-a @r{(GUD)}
Here are the other special commands provided by GUD. The keys
starting with @kbd{C-c} are available only in the GUD interaction
buffer. The key bindings that start with @kbd{C-x C-a} are available in
the GUD interaction buffer and also in source files.
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-l
@kindex C-c C-l @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-l
@findex gud-refresh
Display in another window the last line referred to in the GUD
buffer (that is, the line indicated in the last location message).
This runs the command @code{gud-refresh}.
@item C-c C-s
@kindex C-c C-s @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-s
@findex gud-step
Execute a single line of code (@code{gud-step}). If the line contains
a function call, execution stops after entering the called function.
@item C-c C-n
@kindex C-c C-n @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-n
@findex gud-next
Execute a single line of code, stepping across entire function calls
at full speed (@code{gud-next}).
@item C-c C-i
@kindex C-c C-i @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-i
@findex gud-stepi
Execute a single machine instruction (@code{gud-stepi}).
@need 3000
@item C-c C-r
@kindex C-c C-r @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-r
@findex gud-cont
Continue execution without specifying any stopping point. The program
will run until it hits a breakpoint, terminates, or gets a signal that
the debugger is checking for (@code{gud-cont}).
@need 1000
@item C-c C-d
@kindex C-c C-d @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-d
@findex gud-remove
Delete the breakpoint(s) on the current source line, if any
(@code{gud-remove}). If you use this command in the GUD interaction
buffer, it applies to the line where the program last stopped.
@item C-c C-t
@kindex C-c C-t @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-t
@findex gud-tbreak
Set a temporary breakpoint on the current source line, if any.
If you use this command in the GUD interaction buffer,
it applies to the line where the program last stopped.
@end table
The above commands are common to all supported debuggers. If you are
using GDB or (some versions of) DBX, these additional commands are available:
@table @kbd
@item C-c <
@kindex C-c < @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a <
@findex gud-up
Select the next enclosing stack frame (@code{gud-up}). This is
equivalent to the @samp{up} command.
@item C-c >
@kindex C-c > @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a >
@findex gud-down
Select the next inner stack frame (@code{gud-down}). This is
equivalent to the @samp{down} command.
@end table
If you are using GDB, these additional key bindings are available:
@table @kbd
@item @key{TAB}
@kindex TAB @r{(GUD)}
@findex gud-gdb-complete-command
With GDB, complete a symbol name (@code{gud-gdb-complete-command}).
This key is available only in the GUD interaction buffer, and requires
GDB versions 4.13 and later.
@item C-c C-f
@kindex C-c C-f @r{(GUD)}
@itemx C-x C-a C-f
@findex gud-finish
Run the program until the selected stack frame returns (or until it
stops for some other reason).
@end table
These commands interpret a numeric argument as a repeat count, when
that makes sense.
Because @key{TAB} serves as a completion command, you can't use it to
enter a tab as input to the program you are debugging with GDB.
Instead, type @kbd{C-q @key{TAB}} to enter a tab.
@node GUD Customization
@subsection GUD Customization
@vindex gdb-mode-hook
@vindex dbx-mode-hook
@vindex sdb-mode-hook
@vindex xdb-mode-hook
@vindex perldb-mode-hook
@vindex pdb-mode-hook
@vindex jdb-mode-hook
On startup, GUD runs one of the following hooks: @code{gdb-mode-hook},
if you are using GDB; @code{dbx-mode-hook}, if you are using DBX;
@code{sdb-mode-hook}, if you are using SDB; @code{xdb-mode-hook}, if you
are using XDB; @code{perldb-mode-hook}, for Perl debugging mode;
@code{jdb-mode-hook}, for PDB; @code{jdb-mode-hook}, for JDB. You can
use these hooks to define custom key bindings for the debugger
interaction buffer. @xref{Hooks}.
Here is a convenient way to define a command that sends a particular
command string to the debugger, and set up a key binding for it in the
debugger interaction buffer:
@findex gud-def
@example
(gud-def @var{function} @var{cmdstring} @var{binding} @var{docstring})
@end example
This defines a command named @var{function} which sends
@var{cmdstring} to the debugger process, and gives it the documentation
string @var{docstring}. You can use the command thus defined in any
buffer. If @var{binding} is non-@code{nil}, @code{gud-def} also binds
the command to @kbd{C-c @var{binding}} in the GUD buffer's mode and to
@kbd{C-x C-a @var{binding}} generally.
The command string @var{cmdstring} may contain certain
@samp{%}-sequences that stand for data to be filled in at the time
@var{function} is called:
@table @samp
@item %f
The name of the current source file. If the current buffer is the GUD
buffer, then the ``current source file'' is the file that the program
stopped in.
@c This said, ``the name of the file the program counter was in at the last breakpoint.''
@c But I suspect it is really the last stop file.
@item %l
The number of the current source line. If the current buffer is the GUD
buffer, then the ``current source line'' is the line that the program
stopped in.
@item %e
The text of the C lvalue or function-call expression at or adjacent to point.
@item %a
The text of the hexadecimal address at or adjacent to point.
@item %p
The numeric argument of the called function, as a decimal number. If
the command is used without a numeric argument, @samp{%p} stands for the
empty string.
If you don't use @samp{%p} in the command string, the command you define
ignores any numeric argument.
@end table
@node Executing Lisp
@section Executing Lisp Expressions
Emacs has several different major modes for Lisp and Scheme. They are
the same in terms of editing commands, but differ in the commands for
executing Lisp expressions. Each mode has its own purpose.
@table @asis
@item Emacs-Lisp mode
The mode for editing source files of programs to run in Emacs Lisp.
This mode defines @kbd{C-M-x} to evaluate the current defun.
@xref{Lisp Libraries}.
@item Lisp Interaction mode
The mode for an interactive session with Emacs Lisp. It defines
@kbd{C-j} to evaluate the sexp before point and insert its value in the
buffer. @xref{Lisp Interaction}.
@item Lisp mode
The mode for editing source files of programs that run in Lisps other
than Emacs Lisp. This mode defines @kbd{C-M-x} to send the current defun
to an inferior Lisp process. @xref{External Lisp}.
@item Inferior Lisp mode
The mode for an interactive session with an inferior Lisp process.
This mode combines the special features of Lisp mode and Shell mode
(@pxref{Shell Mode}).
@item Scheme mode
Like Lisp mode but for Scheme programs.
@item Inferior Scheme mode
The mode for an interactive session with an inferior Scheme process.
@end table
Most editing commands for working with Lisp programs are in fact
available globally. @xref{Programs}.
@node Lisp Libraries
@section Libraries of Lisp Code for Emacs
@cindex libraries
@cindex loading Lisp code
Lisp code for Emacs editing commands is stored in files whose names
conventionally end in @file{.el}. This ending tells Emacs to edit them in
Emacs-Lisp mode (@pxref{Executing Lisp}).
@findex load-file
To execute a file of Emacs Lisp code, use @kbd{M-x load-file}. This
command reads a file name using the minibuffer and then executes the
contents of that file as Lisp code. It is not necessary to visit the
file first; in any case, this command reads the file as found on disk,
not text in an Emacs buffer.
@findex load
@findex load-library
Once a file of Lisp code is installed in the Emacs Lisp library
directories, users can load it using @kbd{M-x load-library}. Programs can
load it by calling @code{load-library}, or with @code{load}, a more primitive
function that is similar but accepts some additional arguments.
@kbd{M-x load-library} differs from @kbd{M-x load-file} in that it
searches a sequence of directories and tries three file names in each
directory. Suppose your argument is @var{lib}; the three names are
@file{@var{lib}.elc}, @file{@var{lib}.el}, and lastly just
@file{@var{lib}}. If @file{@var{lib}.elc} exists, it is by convention
the result of compiling @file{@var{lib}.el}; it is better to load the
compiled file, since it will load and run faster.
If @code{load-library} finds that @file{@var{lib}.el} is newer than
@file{@var{lib}.elc} file, it prints a warning, because it's likely that
somebody made changes to the @file{.el} file and forgot to recompile
it.
Because the argument to @code{load-library} is usually not in itself
a valid file name, file name completion is not available. Indeed, when
using this command, you usually do not know exactly what file name
will be used.
@vindex load-path
The sequence of directories searched by @kbd{M-x load-library} is
specified by the variable @code{load-path}, a list of strings that are
directory names. The default value of the list contains the directory where
the Lisp code for Emacs itself is stored. If you have libraries of
your own, put them in a single directory and add that directory
to @code{load-path}. @code{nil} in this list stands for the current default
directory, but it is probably not a good idea to put @code{nil} in the
list. If you find yourself wishing that @code{nil} were in the list,
most likely what you really want to do is use @kbd{M-x load-file}
this once.
@cindex autoload
Often you do not have to give any command to load a library, because
the commands defined in the library are set up to @dfn{autoload} that
library. Trying to run any of those commands calls @code{load} to load
the library; this replaces the autoload definitions with the real ones
from the library.
@cindex byte code
Emacs Lisp code can be compiled into byte-code which loads faster,
takes up less space when loaded, and executes faster. @xref{Byte
Compilation,, Byte Compilation, elisp, the Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.
By convention, the compiled code for a library goes in a separate file
whose name consists of the library source file with @samp{c} appended.
Thus, the compiled code for @file{foo.el} goes in @file{foo.elc}.
That's why @code{load-library} searches for @samp{.elc} files first.
@node Lisp Eval
@section Evaluating Emacs-Lisp Expressions
@cindex Emacs-Lisp mode
@cindex mode, Emacs-Lisp
@findex emacs-lisp-mode
Lisp programs intended to be run in Emacs should be edited in
Emacs-Lisp mode; this happens automatically for file names ending in
@file{.el}. By contrast, Lisp mode itself is used for editing Lisp
programs intended for other Lisp systems. To switch to Emacs-Lisp mode
explicitly, use the command @kbd{M-x emacs-lisp-mode}.
For testing of Lisp programs to run in Emacs, it is often useful to
evaluate part of the program as it is found in the Emacs buffer. For
example, after changing the text of a Lisp function definition,
evaluating the definition installs the change for future calls to the
function. Evaluation of Lisp expressions is also useful in any kind of
editing, for invoking noninteractive functions (functions that are
not commands).
@table @kbd
@item M-:
Read a single Lisp expression in the minibuffer, evaluate it, and print
the value in the echo area (@code{eval-expression}).
@item C-x C-e
Evaluate the Lisp expression before point, and print the value in the
echo area (@code{eval-last-sexp}).
@item C-M-x
Evaluate the defun containing or after point, and print the value in
the echo area (@code{eval-defun}).
@item M-x eval-region
Evaluate all the Lisp expressions in the region.
@item M-x eval-current-buffer
Evaluate all the Lisp expressions in the buffer.
@end table
@kindex M-:
@findex eval-expression
@kbd{M-:} (@code{eval-expression}) is the most basic command for evaluating
a Lisp expression interactively. It reads the expression using the
minibuffer, so you can execute any expression on a buffer regardless of
what the buffer contains. When the expression is evaluated, the current
buffer is once again the buffer that was current when @kbd{M-:} was
typed.
@kindex C-M-x @r{(Emacs-Lisp mode)}
@findex eval-defun
In Emacs-Lisp mode, the key @kbd{C-M-x} is bound to the command
@code{eval-defun}, which parses the defun containing or following point
as a Lisp expression and evaluates it. The value is printed in the echo
area. This command is convenient for installing in the Lisp environment
changes that you have just made in the text of a function definition.
@kbd{C-M-x} treats @code{defvar} expressions specially. Normally,
evaluating a @code{defvar} expression does nothing if the variable it
defines already has a value. But @kbd{C-M-x} unconditionally resets the
variable to the initial value specified in the @code{defvar} expression.
This special feature is convenient for debugging Lisp programs.
@kindex C-x C-e
@findex eval-last-sexp
The command @kbd{C-x C-e} (@code{eval-last-sexp}) evaluates the Lisp
expression preceding point in the buffer, and displays the value in the
echo area. It is available in all major modes, not just Emacs-Lisp
mode. It does not treat @code{defvar} specially.
If @kbd{C-M-x}, @kbd{C-x C-e}, or @kbd{M-:} is given a numeric
argument, it inserts the value into the current buffer at point, rather
than displaying it in the echo area. The argument's value does not
matter.
@findex eval-region
@findex eval-current-buffer
The most general command for evaluating Lisp expressions from a buffer
is @code{eval-region}. @kbd{M-x eval-region} parses the text of the
region as one or more Lisp expressions, evaluating them one by one.
@kbd{M-x eval-current-buffer} is similar but evaluates the entire
buffer. This is a reasonable way to install the contents of a file of
Lisp code that you are just ready to test. Later, as you find bugs and
change individual functions, use @kbd{C-M-x} on each function that you
change. This keeps the Lisp world in step with the source file.
@node Lisp Interaction
@section Lisp Interaction Buffers
The buffer @samp{*scratch*} which is selected when Emacs starts up is
provided for evaluating Lisp expressions interactively inside Emacs.
The simplest way to use the @samp{*scratch*} buffer is to insert Lisp
expressions and type @kbd{C-j} after each expression. This command
reads the Lisp expression before point, evaluates it, and inserts the
value in printed representation before point. The result is a complete
typescript of the expressions you have evaluated and their values.
The @samp{*scratch*} buffer's major mode is Lisp Interaction mode, which
is the same as Emacs-Lisp mode except for the binding of @kbd{C-j}.
@findex lisp-interaction-mode
The rationale for this feature is that Emacs must have a buffer when
it starts up, but that buffer is not useful for editing files since a
new buffer is made for every file that you visit. The Lisp interpreter
typescript is the most useful thing I can think of for the initial
buffer to do. Type @kbd{M-x lisp-interaction-mode} to put the current
buffer in Lisp Interaction mode.
@findex ielm
An alternative way of evaluating Emacs Lisp expressions interactively
is to use Inferior Emacs-Lisp mode, which provides an interface rather
like Shell mode (@pxref{Shell Mode}) for evaluating Emacs Lisp
expressions. Type @kbd{M-x ielm} to create an @samp{*ielm*} buffer
which uses this mode.
@node External Lisp
@section Running an External Lisp
Emacs has facilities for running programs in other Lisp systems. You can
run a Lisp process as an inferior of Emacs, and pass expressions to it to
be evaluated. You can also pass changed function definitions directly from
the Emacs buffers in which you edit the Lisp programs to the inferior Lisp
process.
@findex run-lisp
@vindex inferior-lisp-program
@kindex C-x C-z
To run an inferior Lisp process, type @kbd{M-x run-lisp}. This runs
the program named @code{lisp}, the same program you would run by typing
@code{lisp} as a shell command, with both input and output going through
an Emacs buffer named @samp{*lisp*}. That is to say, any ``terminal
output'' from Lisp will go into the buffer, advancing point, and any
``terminal input'' for Lisp comes from text in the buffer. (You can
change the name of the Lisp executable file by setting the variable
@code{inferior-lisp-program}.)
To give input to Lisp, go to the end of the buffer and type the input,
terminated by @key{RET}. The @samp{*lisp*} buffer is in Inferior Lisp
mode, which combines the special characteristics of Lisp mode with most
of the features of Shell mode (@pxref{Shell Mode}). The definition of
@key{RET} to send a line to a subprocess is one of the features of Shell
mode.
@findex lisp-mode
For the source files of programs to run in external Lisps, use Lisp
mode. This mode can be selected with @kbd{M-x lisp-mode}, and is used
automatically for files whose names end in @file{.l}, @file{.lsp}, or
@file{.lisp}, as most Lisp systems usually expect.
@kindex C-M-x @r{(Lisp mode)}
@findex lisp-eval-defun
When you edit a function in a Lisp program you are running, the easiest
way to send the changed definition to the inferior Lisp process is the key
@kbd{C-M-x}. In Lisp mode, this runs the function @code{lisp-eval-defun},
which finds the defun around or following point and sends it as input to
the Lisp process. (Emacs can send input to any inferior process regardless
of what buffer is current.)
Contrast the meanings of @kbd{C-M-x} in Lisp mode (for editing programs
to be run in another Lisp system) and Emacs-Lisp mode (for editing Lisp
programs to be run in Emacs): in both modes it has the effect of installing
the function definition that point is in, but the way of doing so is
different according to where the relevant Lisp environment is found.
@xref{Executing Lisp}.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@iftex
@chapter Characters, Keys and Commands
This chapter explains the character sets used by Emacs for input
commands and for the contents of files, and also explains the concepts
of @dfn{keys} and @dfn{commands}, which are fundamental for understanding
how Emacs interprets your keyboard and mouse input.
@end iftex
@node User Input, Keys, Screen, Top
@section Kinds of User Input
@cindex input with the keyboard
@cindex keyboard input
@cindex character set (keyboard)
@cindex ASCII
@cindex C-
@cindex Control
@cindex control characters
GNU Emacs uses an extension of the ASCII character set for keyboard
input; it also accepts non-character input events including function
keys and mouse button actions.
ASCII consists of 128 character codes. Some of these codes are
assigned graphic symbols such as @samp{a} and @samp{=}; the rest are
control characters, such as @kbd{Control-a} (usually written @kbd{C-a}
for short). @kbd{C-a} gets its name from the fact that you type it by
holding down the @key{CTRL} key while pressing @kbd{a}.
Some ASCII control characters have special names, and most terminals
have special keys you can type them with: for example, @key{RET},
@key{TAB}, @key{DEL} and @key{ESC}. The space character is usually
referred to below as @key{SPC}, even though strictly speaking it is a
graphic character whose graphic happens to be blank. Some keyboards
have a key labeled ``linefeed'' which is an alias for @kbd{C-j}.
Emacs extends the ASCII character set with thousands more printing
characters (@pxref{International}), additional control characters, and a
few more modifiers that can be combined with any character.
On ASCII terminals, there are only 32 possible control characters.
These are the control variants of letters and @samp{@@[]\^_}. In
addition, the shift key is meaningless with control characters:
@kbd{C-a} and @kbd{C-A} are the same character, and Emacs cannot
distinguish them.
But the Emacs character set has room for control variants of all
printing characters, and for distinguishing between @kbd{C-a} and
@kbd{C-A}. X Windows makes it possible to enter all these characters.
For example, @kbd{C--} (that's Control-Minus) and @kbd{C-5} are
meaningful Emacs commands under X.
Another Emacs character-set extension is additional modifier bits.
Only one modifier bit is commonly used; it is called Meta. Every
character has a Meta variant; examples include @kbd{Meta-a} (normally
written @kbd{M-a}, for short), @kbd{M-A} (not the same character as
@kbd{M-a}, but those two characters normally have the same meaning in
Emacs), @kbd{M-@key{RET}}, and @kbd{M-C-a}. For reasons of tradition,
we usually write @kbd{C-M-a} rather than @kbd{M-C-a}; logically
speaking, the order in which the modifier keys @key{CTRL} and @key{META}
are mentioned does not matter.
@cindex Meta
@cindex M-
@cindex @key{ESC} replacing @key{META} key
Some terminals have a @key{META} key, and allow you to type Meta
characters by holding this key down. Thus, @kbd{Meta-a} is typed by
holding down @key{META} and pressing @kbd{a}. The @key{META} key works
much like the @key{SHIFT} key. Such a key is not always labeled
@key{META}, however, as this function is often a special option for a key
with some other primary purpose.@refill
If there is no @key{META} key, you can still type Meta characters
using two-character sequences starting with @key{ESC}. Thus, to enter
@kbd{M-a}, you could type @kbd{@key{ESC} a}. To enter @kbd{C-M-a}, you
would type @kbd{@key{ESC} C-a}. @key{ESC} is allowed on terminals with
@key{META} keys, too, in case you have formed a habit of using it.
X Windows provides several other modifier keys that can be applied to
any input character. These are called @key{SUPER}, @key{HYPER} and
@key{ALT}. We write @samp{s-}, @samp{H-} and @samp{A-} to say that a
character uses these modifiers. Thus, @kbd{s-H-C-x} is short for
@kbd{Super-Hyper-Control-x}. Not all X terminals actually provide keys
for these modifier flags---in fact, many terminals have a key labeled
@key{ALT} which is really a @key{META} key. The standard key bindings
of Emacs do not include any characters with these modifiers. But you
can assign them meanings of your own by customizing Emacs.
Keyboard input includes keyboard keys that are not characters at all:
for example function keys and arrow keys. Mouse buttons are also
outside the gamut of characters. You can modify these events with the
modifier keys @key{CTRL}, @key{META}, @key{SUPER}, @key{HYPER} and
@key{ALT}, just like keyboard characters.
@cindex input event
Input characters and non-character inputs are collectively called
@dfn{input events}. @xref{Input Events,,, elisp, The Emacs Lisp
Reference Manual}, for more information. If you are not doing Lisp
programming, but simply want to redefine the meaning of some characters
or non-character events, see @ref{Customization}.
ASCII terminals cannot really send anything to the computer except
ASCII characters. These terminals use a sequence of characters to
represent each function key. But that is invisible to the Emacs user,
because the keyboard input routines recognize these special sequences
and convert them to function key events before any other part of Emacs
gets to see them.
@node Keys, Commands, User Input, Top
@section Keys
@cindex key sequence
@cindex key
A @dfn{key sequence} (@dfn{key}, for short) is a sequence of input
events that are meaningful as a unit---as ``a single command.''
Some Emacs command sequences are just one character or one event; for
example, just @kbd{C-f} is enough to move forward one character. But
Emacs also has commands that take two or more events to invoke.
@cindex complete key
@cindex prefix key
If a sequence of events is enough to invoke a command, it is a
@dfn{complete key}. Examples of complete keys include @kbd{C-a},
@kbd{X}, @key{RET}, @key{NEXT} (a function key), @key{DOWN} (an arrow
key), @kbd{C-x C-f}, and @kbd{C-x 4 C-f}. If it isn't long enough to be
complete, we call it a @dfn{prefix key}. The above examples show that
@kbd{C-x} and @kbd{C-x 4} are prefix keys. Every key sequence is either
a complete key or a prefix key.
Most single characters constitute complete keys in the standard Emacs
command bindings. A few of them are prefix keys. A prefix key combines
with the following input event to make a longer key sequence, which may
itself be complete or a prefix. For example, @kbd{C-x} is a prefix key,
so @kbd{C-x} and the next input event combine to make a two-character
key sequence. Most of these key sequences are complete keys, including
@kbd{C-x C-f} and @kbd{C-x b}. A few, such as @kbd{C-x 4} and @kbd{C-x
r}, are themselves prefix keys that lead to three-character key
sequences. There's no limit to the length of a key sequence, but in
practice people rarely use sequences longer than four events.
By contrast, you can't add more events onto a complete key. For
example, the two-character sequence @kbd{C-f C-k} is not a key, because
the @kbd{C-f} is a complete key in itself. It's impossible to give
@kbd{C-f C-k} an independent meaning as a command. @kbd{C-f C-k} is two
key sequences, not one.@refill
All told, the prefix keys in Emacs are @kbd{C-c}, @kbd{C-h},
@kbd{C-x}, @kbd{C-x @key{RET}}, @kbd{C-x @@}, @kbd{C-x a}, @kbd{C-x n}, @w{@kbd{C-x
r}}, @kbd{C-x v}, @kbd{C-x 4}, @kbd{C-x 5}, @kbd{C-x 6}, @key{ESC},
@kbd{M-g} and @kbd{M-j}. But this list is not cast in concrete; it is
just a matter of Emacs's standard key bindings. If you customize Emacs,
you can make new prefix keys, or eliminate these. @xref{Key Bindings}.
If you do make or eliminate prefix keys, that changes the set of
possible key sequences. For example, if you redefine @kbd{C-f} as a
prefix, @kbd{C-f C-k} automatically becomes a key (complete, unless you
define it too as a prefix). Conversely, if you remove the prefix
definition of @kbd{C-x 4}, then @kbd{C-x 4 f} (or @kbd{C-x 4
@var{anything}}) is no longer a key.
Typing the help character (@kbd{C-h} or @key{F1}) after a prefix
character displays a list of the commands starting with that prefix.
There are a few prefix characters for which @kbd{C-h} does not
work---for historical reasons, they have other meanings for @kbd{C-h}
which are not easy to change. But @key{F1} should work for all prefix
characters.
@node Commands, Text Characters, Keys, Top
@section Keys and Commands
@cindex binding
@cindex function
@cindex command
@cindex function definition
This manual is full of passages that tell you what particular keys
do. But Emacs does not assign meanings to keys directly. Instead,
Emacs assigns meanings to named @dfn{commands}, and then gives keys
their meanings by @dfn{binding} them to commands.
Every command has a name chosen by a programmer. The name is usually
made of a few English words separated by dashes; for example,
@code{next-line} or @code{forward-word}. A command also has a
@dfn{function definition} which is a Lisp program; this is what makes
the command do what it does. In Emacs Lisp, a command is actually a
special kind of Lisp function; one which specifies how to read arguments
for it and call it interactively. For more information on commands and
functions, see @ref{What Is a Function,, What Is a Function, elisp, The
Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}. (The definition we use in this manual is
simplified slightly.)
The bindings between keys and commands are recorded in various tables
called @dfn{keymaps}. @xref{Keymaps}.
When we say that ``@kbd{C-n} moves down vertically one line'' we are
glossing over a distinction that is irrelevant in ordinary use but is vital
in understanding how to customize Emacs. It is the command
@code{next-line} that is programmed to move down vertically. @kbd{C-n} has
this effect @emph{because} it is bound to that command. If you rebind
@kbd{C-n} to the command @code{forward-word} then @kbd{C-n} will move
forward by words instead. Rebinding keys is a common method of
customization.@refill
In the rest of this manual, we usually ignore this subtlety to keep
things simple. To give the information needed for customization, we
state the name of the command which really does the work in parentheses
after mentioning the key that runs it. For example, we will say that
``The command @kbd{C-n} (@code{next-line}) moves point vertically
down,'' meaning that @code{next-line} is a command that moves vertically
down and @kbd{C-n} is a key that is standardly bound to it.
While we are on the subject of information for customization only,
it's a good time to tell you about @dfn{variables}. Often the
description of a command will say, ``To change this, set the variable
@code{mumble-foo}.'' A variable is a name used to remember a value.
Most of the variables documented in this manual exist just to facilitate
customization: some command or other part of Emacs examines the variable
and behaves differently according to the value that you set. Until you
are interested in customizing, you can ignore the information about
variables. When you are ready to be interested, read the basic
information on variables, and then the information on individual
variables will make sense. @xref{Variables}.
@node Text Characters, Entering Emacs, Commands, Top
@section Character Set for Text
@cindex characters (in text)
Text in Emacs buffers is a sequence of 8-bit bytes. Each byte can
hold a single ASCII character. Both ASCII control characters (octal
codes 000 through 037, and 0177) and ASCII printing characters (codes
040 through 0176) are allowed; however, non-ASCII control characters
cannot appear in a buffer. The other modifier flags used in keyboard
input, such as Meta, are not allowed in buffers either.
Some ASCII control characters serve special purposes in text, and have
special names. For example, the newline character (octal code 012) is
used in the buffer to end a line, and the tab character (octal code 011)
is used for indenting to the next tab stop column (normally every 8
columns). @xref{Text Display}.
Non-ASCII printing characters can also appear in buffers. When
multibyte characters are enabled, you can use any of the non-ASCII
printing characters that Emacs supports. They have character codes
starting at 256, octal 0400, and each one is represented as a sequence
of two or more bytes. @xref{International}.
If you disable multibyte characters, then you can use only one
alphabet of non-ASCII characters, but they all fit in one byte. They
use codes 0200 through 0377. @xref{Single-Byte European Support}.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Dired, Calendar/Diary, Rmail, Top
@chapter Dired, the Directory Editor
@cindex Dired
Dired makes an Emacs buffer containing a listing of a directory, and
optionally some of its subdirectories as well. You can use the normal
Emacs commands to move around in this buffer, and special Dired commands
to operate on the files listed.
@menu
* Enter: Dired Enter. How to invoke Dired.
* Commands: Dired Commands. Commands in the Dired buffer.
* Deletion: Dired Deletion. Deleting files with Dired.
* Flagging Many Files:: Flagging files based on their names.
* Visit: Dired Visiting. Other file operations through Dired.
* Marks vs Flags:: Flagging for deletion vs marking.
* Operating on Files:: How to copy, rename, print, compress, etc.
either one file or several files.
* Shell Commands in Dired:: Running a shell command on the marked files.
* Transforming File Names:: Using patterns to rename multiple files.
* Comparison in Dired:: Running `diff' by way of Dired.
* Subdirectories in Dired:: Adding subdirectories to the Dired buffer.
* Subdirectory Motion:: Moving across subdirectories, and up and down.
* Hiding Subdirectories:: Making subdirectories visible or invisible.
* Updating: Dired Updating. Discarding lines for files of no interest.
* Find: Dired and Find. Using `find' to choose the files for Dired.
@end menu
@node Dired Enter
@section Entering Dired
@findex dired
@kindex C-x d
@vindex dired-listing-switches
To invoke Dired, do @kbd{C-x d} or @kbd{M-x dired}. The command reads
a directory name or wildcard file name pattern as a minibuffer argument
to specify which files to list. Where @code{dired} differs from
@code{list-directory} is in putting the buffer into Dired mode so that
the special commands of Dired are available.
The variable @code{dired-listing-switches} specifies the options to
give to @code{ls} for listing directory; this string @emph{must} contain
@samp{-l}. If you use a numeric prefix argument with the @code{dired}
command, you can specify the @code{ls} switches with the minibuffer
before you enter the directory specification.
@findex dired-other-window
@kindex C-x 4 d
@findex dired-other-frame
@kindex C-x 5 d
To display the Dired buffer in another window rather than in the
selected window, use @kbd{C-x 4 d} (@code{dired-other-window}) instead
of @kbd{C-x d}. @kbd{C-x 5 d} (@code{dired-other-frame}) uses a
separate frame to display the Dired buffer.
@node Dired Commands
@section Commands in the Dired Buffer
The Dired buffer is ``read-only,'' and inserting text in it is not
useful, so ordinary printing characters such as @kbd{d} and @kbd{x} are
used for special Dired commands. Some Dired commands @dfn{mark} or
@dfn{flag} the @dfn{current file} (that is, the file on the current
line); other commands operate on the marked files or on the flagged
files.
@kindex C-n @r{(Dired)}
@kindex C-p @r{(Dired)}
All the usual Emacs cursor motion commands are available in Dired
buffers. Some special-purpose cursor motion commands are also
provided. The keys @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} are redefined to put the
cursor at the beginning of the file name on the line, rather than at the
beginning of the line.
@kindex SPC @r{(Dired)}
For extra convenience, @key{SPC} and @kbd{n} in Dired are equivalent
to @kbd{C-n}. @kbd{p} is equivalent to @kbd{C-p}. (Moving by lines is
so common in Dired that it deserves to be easy to type.) @key{DEL}
(move up and unflag) is often useful simply for moving up.
@node Dired Deletion
@section Deleting Files with Dired
@cindex flagging files (in Dired)
@cindex deleting files (in Dired)
The primary use of Dired is to @dfn{flag} files for deletion and then
delete the files previously flagged.
@table @kbd
@item d
Flag this file for deletion.
@item u
Remove deletion flag on this line.
@item @key{DEL}
Move point to previous line and remove the deletion flag on that line.
@item x
Delete the files that are flagged for deletion.
@end table
@kindex d @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-flag-file-deletion
You can flag a file for deletion by moving to the line describing the
file and typing @kbd{d} (@code{dired-flag-file-deletion}). The deletion flag is visible as a @samp{D} at
the beginning of the line. This command moves point to the next line,
so that repeated @kbd{d} commands flag successive files. A numeric
argument serves as a repeat count.
@kindex u @r{(Dired deletion)}
@kindex DEL @r{(Dired)}
The files are flagged for deletion rather than deleted immediately to
reduce the danger of deleting a file accidentally. Until you direct
Dired to expunge the flagged files, you can remove deletion flags using
the commands @kbd{u} and @key{DEL}. @kbd{u} (@code{dired-unmark}) works
just like @kbd{d}, but removes flags rather than making flags.
@key{DEL} (@code{dired-unmark-backward}) moves upward, removing flags;
it is like @kbd{u} with argument @minus{}1.
@kindex x @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-expunge
@cindex expunging (Dired)
To delete the flagged files, type @kbd{x} (@code{dired-expunge}).
This command first displays a list of all the file names flagged for
deletion, and requests confirmation with @kbd{yes}. If you confirm,
Dired deletes the flagged files, then deletes their lines from the text
of the Dired buffer. The shortened Dired buffer remains selected.
If you answer @kbd{no} or quit with @kbd{C-g} when asked to confirm, you
return immediately to Dired, with the deletion flags still present in
the buffer, and no files actually deleted.
@node Flagging Many Files
@section Flagging Many Files at Once
@table @kbd
@item #
Flag all auto-save files (files whose names start and end with @samp{#})
for deletion (@pxref{Auto Save}).
@item ~
Flag all backup files (files whose names end with @samp{~}) for deletion
(@pxref{Backup}).
@item &
Flag for deletion all files with certain kinds of names, names that
suggest you could easily create the files again.
@item .@: @r{(Period)}
Flag excess numeric backup files for deletion. The oldest and newest
few backup files of any one file are exempt; the middle ones are
flagged.
@item % d @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Flag for deletion all files whose names match the regular expression
@var{regexp}.
@end table
The @kbd{#}, @kbd{~}, @kbd{&}, and @kbd{.} commands flag many files for
deletion, based on their file names. These commands are useful
precisely because they do not themselves delete any files; you can
remove the deletion flags from any flagged files that you really wish to
keep.@refill
@kindex & @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-flag-garbage-files
@vindex dired-garbage-files-regexp
@kbd{&} (@code{dired-flag-garbage-files}) flags files whose names
match the regular expression specified by the variable
@code{dired-garbage-files-regexp}. By default, this matches certain
files produced by @TeX{}, and the @samp{.orig} and @samp{.rej} files
produced by @code{patch}.
@kindex # @r{(Dired)}
@kindex ~ @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-flag-auto-save-files
@findex dired-flag-backup-files
@kbd{#} (@code{dired-flag-auto-save-files}) flags for deletion all
files whose names look like auto-save files (@pxref{Auto Save})---that
is, files whose names begin and end with @samp{#}. @kbd{~}
(@code{dired-flag-backup-files}) flags for deletion all files whose
names say they are backup files (@pxref{Backup})---that is, whose names
end in @samp{~}.
@kindex . @r{(Dired)}
@vindex dired-kept-versions
@findex dired-clean-directory
@kbd{.} (period, @code{dired-clean-directory}) flags just some of the
backup files for deletion: all but the oldest few and newest few backups
of any one file. Normally @code{dired-kept-versions} (@strong{not}
@code{kept-new-versions}; that applies only when saving) specifies the
number of newest versions of each file to keep, and
@code{kept-old-versions} specifies the number of oldest versions to
keep.
Period with a positive numeric argument, as in @kbd{C-u 3 .},
specifies the number of newest versions to keep, overriding
@code{dired-kept-versions}. A negative numeric argument overrides
@code{kept-old-versions}, using minus the value of the argument to
specify the number of oldest versions of each file to keep.
@findex dired-flag-files-regexp
@kindex % d @r{(Dired)}
The @kbd{% d} command flags all files whose names match a specified
regular expression (@code{dired-flag-files-regexp}). Only the
non-directory part of the file name is used in matching. You can use
@samp{^} and @samp{$} to anchor matches. You can exclude subdirectories
by hiding them (@pxref{Hiding Subdirectories}).
@node Dired Visiting
@section Visiting Files in Dired
There are several Dired commands for visiting or examining the files
listed in the Dired buffer. All of them apply to the current line's
file; if that file is really a directory, these commands invoke Dired on
that subdirectory (making a separate Dired buffer).
@table @kbd
@item f
@kindex f @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-find-file
Visit the file described on the current line, like typing @kbd{C-x C-f}
and supplying that file name (@code{dired-find-file}). @xref{Visiting}.
@item @key{RET}
@kindex RET @r{(Dired)}
Equivalent to @kbd{f}.
@item o
@kindex o @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-find-file-other-window
Like @kbd{f}, but uses another window to display the file's buffer
(@code{dired-find-file-other-window}). The Dired buffer remains visible
in the first window. This is like using @kbd{C-x 4 C-f} to visit the
file. @xref{Windows}.
@item C-o
@kindex C-o @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-display-file
Visit the file described on the current line, and display the buffer in
another window, but do not select that window (@code{dired-display-file}).
@item Mouse-2
@findex dired-mouse-find-file-other-window
Visit the file named by the line you click on
(@code{dired-mouse-find-file-other-window}). This uses another window
to display the file, like the @kbd{o} command.
@item v
@kindex v @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-view-file
View the file described on the current line, using @kbd{M-x view-file}
(@code{dired-view-file}).
Viewing a file is like visiting it, but is slanted toward moving around
in the file conveniently and does not allow changing the file.
@xref{Misc File Ops,View File}.
@end table
@node Marks vs Flags
@section Dired Marks vs. Flags
@cindex marking in Dired
Instead of flagging a file with @samp{D}, you can @dfn{mark} the file
with some other character (usually @samp{*}). Most Dired commands to
operate on files, aside from ``expunge'' (@kbd{x}), look for files
marked with @samp{*}.
Here are some commands for marking with @samp{*}, or for unmarking or
operating on marks. (@xref{Dired Deletion}, for commands to flag and
unflag files.)
@table @kbd
@item m
@itemx * m
@kindex m @r{(Dired)}
@kindex * m @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-mark
Mark the current file with @samp{*} (@code{dired-mark}). With a numeric
argument @var{n}, mark the next @var{n} files starting with the current
file. (If @var{n} is negative, mark the previous @minus{}@var{n}
files.)
@item * *
@kindex * * @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-mark-executables
Mark all executable files with @samp{*}
(@code{dired-mark-executables}). With a numeric argument, unmark all
those files.
@item * @@
@kindex * @@ @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-mark-symlinks
Mark all symbolic links with @samp{*} (@code{dired-mark-symlinks}).
With a numeric argument, unmark all those files.
@item * /
@kindex * / @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-mark-directories
Mark with @samp{*} all files which are actually directories, except for
@file{.} and @file{..} (@code{dired-mark-directories}). With a numeric
argument, unmark all those files.
@item * s
@kindex * s @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-mark-subdir-files
Mark all the files in the current subdirectory, aside from @file{.}
and @file{..} (@code{dired-mark-subdir-files}).
@item u
@itemx * u
@kindex u @r{(Dired)}
@kindex * u @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-unmark
Remove any mark on this line (@code{dired-unmark}).
@item @key{DEL}
@itemx * @key{DEL}
@kindex * DEL @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-unmark-backward
Move point to previous line and remove any mark on that line
(@code{dired-unmark-backward}).
@item * !
@kindex * ! @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-unmark-all-files-no-query
Remove all marks from all the files in this Dired buffer
(@code{dired-unmark-all-files-no-query}).
@item * ? @var{markchar}
@kindex * ? @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-unmark-all-files
Remove all marks that use the character @var{markchar}
(@code{dired-unmark-all-files}). The argument is a single
character---do not use @key{RET} to terminate it.
With a numeric argument, this command queries about each marked file,
asking whether to remove its mark. You can answer @kbd{y} meaning yes,
@kbd{n} meaning no, or @kbd{!} to remove the marks from the remaining
files without asking about them.
@item * C-n
@findex dired-next-marked-file
@kindex * C-n @r{(Dired)}
Move down to the next marked file (@code{dired-next-marked-file})
A file is ``marked'' if it has any kind of mark.
@item * C-p
@findex dired-prev-marked-file
@kindex * C-p @r{(Dired)}
Move up to the previous marked file (@code{dired-prev-marked-file})
@item * t
@kindex * t @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-toggle
Toggle all marks (@code{dired-do-toggle}): files marked with @samp{*}
become unmarked, and unmarked files are marked with @samp{*}. Files
marked in any other way are not affected.
@item * c @var{old} @var{new}
@kindex * c @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-change-marks
Replace all marks that use the character @var{old} with marks that use
the character @var{new} (@code{dired-change-marks}). This command is
the primary way to create or use marks other than @samp{*} or @samp{D}.
The arguments are single characters---do not use @key{RET} to terminate
them.
You can use almost any character as a mark character by means of this
command, to distinguish various classes of files. If @var{old} is a
space (@samp{ }), then the command operates on all unmarked files; if
@var{new} is a space, then the command unmarks the files it acts on.
To illustrate the power of this command, here is how to put @samp{D}
flags on all the files that have no marks, while unflagging all those
that already have @samp{D} flags:
@example
* c D t * c SPC D * c t SPC
@end example
This assumes that no files are marked with @samp{t}.
@item % m @var{regexp} @key{RET}
@itemx * % @var{regexp} @key{RET}
@findex dired-mark-files-regexp
@kindex % m @r{(Dired)}
@kindex * % @r{(Dired)}
Mark (with @samp{*}) all files whose names match the regular expression
@var{regexp} (@code{dired-mark-files-regexp}). This command is like
@kbd{% d}, except that it marks files with @samp{*} instead of flagging
with @samp{D}. @xref{Flagging Many Files}.
Only the non-directory part of the file name is used in matching. Use
@samp{^} and @samp{$} to anchor matches. Exclude subdirectories by
hiding them (@pxref{Hiding Subdirectories}).
@item % g @var{regexp} @key{RET}
@findex dired-mark-files-containing-regexp
@kindex % m @r{(Dired)}
Mark (with @samp{*}) all files whose @emph{contents} contain a match for
the regular expression @var{regexp}
(@code{dired-mark-files-containing-regexp}). This command is like
@kbd{% m}, except that it searches the file contents instead of the file
name.
@item C-_
@kindex C-_ @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-undo
Undo changes in the Dired buffer, such as adding or removing
marks (@code{dired-undo}).
@end table
@node Operating on Files
@section Operating on Files
@cindex operating on files in Dired
This section describes the basic Dired commands to operate on one file
or several files. All of these commands are capital letters; all of
them use the minibuffer, either to read an argument or to ask for
confirmation, before they act. All of them give you several ways to
specify which files to manipulate:
@itemize @bullet
@item
If you give the command a numeric prefix argument @var{n}, it operates
on the next @var{n} files, starting with the current file. (If @var{n}
is negative, the command operates on the @minus{}@var{n} files preceding
the current line.)
@item
Otherwise, if some files are marked with @samp{*}, the command operates
on all those files.
@item
Otherwise, the command operates on the current file only.
@end itemize
Here are the file-manipulating commands that operate on files in this
way. (Some other Dired commands, such as @kbd{!} and the @samp{%}
commands, also use these conventions to decide which files to work on.)
@table @kbd
@findex dired-do-copy
@kindex C @r{(Dired)}
@item C @var{new} @key{RET}
Copy the specified files (@code{dired-do-copy}). The argument @var{new}
is the directory to copy into, or (if copying a single file) the new
name.
@vindex dired-copy-preserve-time
If @code{dired-copy-preserve-time} is non-@code{nil}, then copying with
this command sets the modification time of the new file to be the same
as that of the old file.
@item D
@findex dired-do-delete
@kindex D @r{(Dired)}
Delete the specified files (@code{dired-do-delete}). Like the other
commands in this section, this command operates on the @emph{marked}
files, or the next @var{n} files. By contrast, @kbd{x}
(@code{dired-expunge}) deletes all @dfn{flagged} files.
@findex dired-do-rename
@kindex R @r{(Dired)}
@item R @var{new} @key{RET}
Rename the specified files (@code{dired-do-rename}). The argument
@var{new} is the directory to rename into, or (if renaming a single
file) the new name.
Dired automatically changes the visited file name of buffers associated
with renamed files so that they refer to the new names.
@findex dired-do-hardlink
@kindex H @r{(Dired)}
@item H @var{new} @key{RET}
Make hard links to the specified files (@code{dired-do-hardlink}). The
argument @var{new} is the directory to make the links in, or (if making
just one link) the name to give the link.
@findex dired-do-symlink
@kindex S @r{(Dired)}
@item S @var{new} @key{RET}
Make symbolic links to the specified files (@code{dired-do-symlink}).
The argument @var{new} is the directory to make the links in, or (if
making just one link) the name to give the link.
@findex dired-do-chmod
@kindex M @r{(Dired)}
@item M @var{modespec} @key{RET}
Change the mode (also called ``permission bits'') of the specified files
(@code{dired-do-chmod}). This uses the @code{chmod} program, so
@var{modespec} can be any argument that @code{chmod} can handle.
@findex dired-do-chgrp
@kindex G @r{(Dired)}
@item G @var{newgroup} @key{RET}
Change the group of the specified files to @var{newgroup}
(@code{dired-do-chgrp}).
@findex dired-do-chown
@kindex O @r{(Dired)}
@item O @var{newowner} @key{RET}
Change the owner of the specified files to @var{newowner}
(@code{dired-do-chown}). (On most systems, only the superuser can do
this.)
@vindex dired-chown-program
The variable @code{dired-chown-program} specifies the name of the
program to use to do the work (different systems put @code{chown} in
different places).
@findex dired-do-print
@kindex P @r{(Dired)}
@item P @var{command} @key{RET}
Print the specified files (@code{dired-do-print}). You must specify the
command to print them with, but the minibuffer starts out with a
suitable guess made using the variables @code{lpr-command} and
@code{lpr-switches} (the same variables that @code{lpr-buffer} uses;
@pxref{Hardcopy}).
@findex dired-do-compress
@kindex Z @r{(Dired)}
@item Z
Compress the specified files (@code{dired-do-compress}). If the file
appears to be a compressed file already, it is uncompressed instead.
@findex dired-do-load
@kindex L @r{(Dired)}
@item L
Load the specified Emacs Lisp files (@code{dired-do-load}).
@xref{Lisp Libraries}.
@findex dired-do-byte-compile
@kindex B @r{(Dired)}
@item B
Byte compile the specified Emacs Lisp files
(@code{dired-do-byte-compile}). @xref{Byte Compilation,, Byte
Compilation, elisp, The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.
@kindex A @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-search
@item A @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Search all the specified files for the regular expression @var{regexp}
(@code{dired-do-search}).
This command is a variant of @code{tags-search}. The search stops at
the first match it finds; use @kbd{M-,} to resume the search and find
the next match. @xref{Tags Search}.
@kindex Q @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-query-replace
@item Q @var{from} @key{RET} @var{to} @key{RET}
Perform @code{query-replace-regexp} on each of the specified files,
replacing matches for @var{from} (a regular expression) with the string
@var{to} (@code{dired-do-query-replace}).
This command is a variant of @code{tags-query-replace}. If you exit the
query replace loop, you can use @kbd{M-,} to resume the scan and replace
more matches. @xref{Tags Search}.
@end table
@kindex + @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-create-directory
One special file-operation command is @kbd{+}
(@code{dired-create-directory}). This command reads a directory name and
creates the directory if it does not already exist.
@node Shell Commands in Dired
@section Shell Commands in Dired
@cindex shell commands, Dired
@findex dired-do-shell-command
@kindex ! @r{(Dired)}
The dired command @kbd{!} (@code{dired-do-shell-command}) reads a shell
command string in the minibuffer and runs that shell command on all the
specified files. You can specify the files to operate on in the usual
ways for Dired commands (@pxref{Operating on Files}). There are two
ways of applying a shell command to multiple files:
@itemize @bullet
@item
If you use @samp{*} in the shell command, then it runs just once, with
the list of file names substituted for the @samp{*}. The order of file
names is the order of appearance in the Dired buffer.
Thus, @kbd{! tar cf foo.tar * @key{RET}} runs @code{tar} on the entire
list of file names, putting them into one tar file @file{foo.tar}.
@item
If the command string doesn't contain @samp{*}, then it runs once
@emph{for each file}, with the file name added at the end.
For example, @kbd{! uudecode @key{RET}} runs @code{uudecode} on each
file.
@end itemize
What if you want to run the shell command once for each file but with
the file name inserted in the middle? Or if you want to use the file
names in a more complicated fashion? Use a shell loop. For example,
this shell command would run @code{uuencode} on each of the specified
files, writing the output into a corresponding @file{.uu} file:
@example
for file in *; do uuencode $file $file >$file.uu; done
@end example
The working directory for the shell command is the top-level directory
of the Dired buffer.
The @kbd{!} command does not attempt to update the Dired buffer to show
new or modified files, because it doesn't really understand shell
commands, and does not know what files the shell command changed. Use
the @kbd{g} command to update the Dired buffer (@pxref{Dired
Updating}).
@node Transforming File Names
@section Transforming File Names in Dired
Here are commands that alter file names in a systematic way:
@table @kbd
@findex dired-upcase
@kindex % u @r{(Dired)}
@item % u
Rename each of the selected files to an upper-case name
(@code{dired-upcase}). If the old file names are @file{Foo}
and @file{bar}, the new names are @file{FOO} and @file{BAR}.
@item % l
@findex dired-downcase
@kindex % l @r{(Dired)}
Rename each of the selected files to a lower-case name
(@code{dired-downcase}). If the old file names are @file{Foo} and
@file{bar}, the new names are @file{foo} and @file{bar}.
@item % R @var{from} @key{RET} @var{to} @key{RET}
@kindex % R @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-rename-regexp
@itemx % C @var{from} @key{RET} @var{to} @key{RET}
@kindex % C @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-copy-regexp
@itemx % H @var{from} @key{RET} @var{to} @key{RET}
@kindex % H @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-hardlink-regexp
@itemx % S @var{from} @key{RET} @var{to} @key{RET}
@kindex % S @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-symlink-regexp
These four commands rename, copy, make hard links and make soft links,
in each case computing the new name by regular-expression substitution
from the name of the old file.
@end table
The four regular-expression substitution commands effectively perform
a search-and-replace on the selected file names in the Dired buffer.
They read two arguments: a regular expression @var{from}, and a
substitution pattern @var{to}.
The commands match each ``old'' file name against the regular
expression @var{from}, and then replace the matching part with @var{to}.
You can use @samp{\&} and @samp{\@var{digit}} in @var{to} to refer to
all or part of what the pattern matched in the old file name, as in
@code{replace-regexp} (@pxref{Regexp Replace}). If the regular expression
matches more than once in a file name, only the first match is replaced.
For example, @kbd{% R ^.*$ @key{RET} x-\& @key{RET}} renames each
selected file by prepending @samp{x-} to its name. The inverse of this,
removing @samp{x-} from the front of each file name, is also possible:
one method is @kbd{% R ^x-\(.*\)$ @key{RET} \1 @key{RET}}; another is
@kbd{% R ^x- @key{RET} @key{RET}}. (Use @samp{^} and @samp{$} to anchor
matches that should span the whole filename.)
Normally, the replacement process does not consider the files'
directory names; it operates on the file name within the directory. If
you specify a numeric argument of zero, then replacement affects the
entire absolute file name including directory name.
Often you will want to select the set of files to operate on using the
same @var{regexp} that you will use to operate on them. To do this,
mark those files with @kbd{% m @var{regexp} @key{RET}}, then use the
same regular expression in the command to operate on the files. To make
this easier, the @kbd{%} commands to operate on files use the last
regular expression specified in any @kbd{%} command as a default.
@node Comparison in Dired
@section File Comparison with Dired
Here are two Dired commands that compare specified files using
@code{diff}.
@table @kbd
@item =
@findex dired-diff
@kindex = @r{(Dired)}
Compare the current file (the file at point) with another file (the file
at the mark) using the @code{diff} program (@code{dired-diff}). The
file at the mark is the first argument of @code{diff}, and the file at
point is the second argument.
@findex dired-backup-diff
@kindex M-= @r{(Dired)}
@item M-=
Compare the current file with its latest backup file
(@code{dired-backup-diff}). If the current file is itself a backup,
compare it with the file it is a backup of; this way, you can compare
a file with any backup version of your choice.
The backup file is the first file given to @code{diff}.
@end table
@node Subdirectories in Dired
@section Subdirectories in Dired
@cindex subdirectories in Dired
@cindex expanding subdirectories in Dired
A Dired buffer displays just one directory in the normal case;
but you can optionally include its subdirectories as well.
The simplest way to include multiple directories in one Dired buffer is
to specify the options @samp{-lR} for running @code{ls}. (If you give a
numeric argument when you run Dired, then you can specify these options
in the minibuffer.) That produces a recursive directory listing showing
all subdirectories at all levels.
But usually all the subdirectories are too many; usually you will
prefer to include specific subdirectories only. You can do this with
the @kbd{i} command:
@table @kbd
@findex dired-maybe-insert-subdir
@kindex i @r{(Dired)}
@item i
@cindex inserted subdirectory (Dired)
@cindex in-situ subdirectory (Dired)
Insert the contents of a subdirectory later in the buffer.
@end table
Use the @kbd{i} (@code{dired-maybe-insert-subdir}) command on a line
that describes a file which is a directory. It inserts the contents of
that directory into the same Dired buffer, and moves there. Inserted
subdirectory contents follow the top-level directory of the Dired
buffer, just as they do in @samp{ls -lR} output.
If the subdirectory's contents are already present in the buffer, the
@kbd{i} command just moves to it.
In either case, @kbd{i} sets the Emacs mark before moving, so @kbd{C-u
C-@key{SPC}} takes you back to the old position in the buffer (the line
describing that subdirectory).
Use the @kbd{l} command (@code{dired-do-redisplay}) to update the
subdirectory's contents. Use @kbd{k} to delete the subdirectory.
@xref{Dired Updating}.
@node Subdirectory Motion
@section Moving Over Subdirectories
When a Dired buffer lists subdirectories, you can use the page motion
commands @kbd{C-x [} and @kbd{C-x ]} to move by entire directories.
@cindex header line (Dired)
@cindex directory header lines
The following commands move across, up and down in the tree of
directories within one Dired buffer. They move to @dfn{directory header
lines}, which are the lines that give a directory's name, at the
beginning of the directory's contents.
@table @kbd
@findex dired-next-subdir
@kindex C-M-n @r{(Dired)}
@item C-M-n
Go to next subdirectory header line, regardless of level
(@code{dired-next-subdir}).
@findex dired-prev-subdir
@kindex C-M-p @r{(Dired)}
@item C-M-p
Go to previous subdirectory header line, regardless of level
(@code{dired-prev-subdir}).
@findex dired-tree-up
@kindex C-M-u @r{(Dired)}
@item C-M-u
Go up to the parent directory's header line (@code{dired-tree-up}).
@findex dired-tree-down
@kindex C-M-d @r{(Dired)}
@item C-M-d
Go down in the directory tree, to the first subdirectory's header line
(@code{dired-tree-down}).
@findex dired-prev-dirline
@kindex < @r{(Dired)}
@item <
Move up to the previous directory-file line (@code{dired-prev-dirline}).
These lines are the ones that describe a directory as a file in its
parent directory.
@findex dired-next-dirline
@kindex > @r{(Dired)}
@item >
Move down to the next directory-file line (@code{dired-prev-dirline}).
@end table
@node Hiding Subdirectories
@section Hiding Subdirectories
@cindex hiding in Dired (Dired)
@dfn{Hiding} a subdirectory means to make it invisible, except for its
header line, via selective display (@pxref{Selective Display}).
@table @kbd
@item $
@findex dired-hide-subdir
@kindex $ @r{(Dired)}
Hide or reveal the subdirectory that point is in, and move point to the
next subdirectory (@code{dired-hide-subdir}). A numeric argument serves
as a repeat count.
@item M-$
@findex dired-hide-all
@kindex M-$ @r{(Dired)}
Hide all subdirectories in this Dired buffer, leaving only their header
lines (@code{dired-hide-all}). Or, if any subdirectory is currently
hidden, make all subdirectories visible again. You can use this command
to get an overview in very deep directory trees or to move quickly to
subdirectories far away.
@end table
Ordinary Dired commands never consider files inside a hidden
subdirectory. For example, the commands to operate on marked files
ignore files in hidden directories even if they are marked. Thus you
can use hiding to temporarily exclude subdirectories from operations
without having to remove the markers.
The subdirectory hiding commands toggle; that is, they hide what was
visible, and show what was hidden.
@node Dired Updating
@section Updating the Dired Buffer
This section describes commands to update the Dired buffer to reflect
outside (non-Dired) changes in the directories and files, and to delete
part of the Dired buffer.
@table @kbd
@item g
Update the entire contents of the Dired buffer (@code{revert-buffer}).
@item l
Update the specified files (@code{dired-do-redisplay}).
@item k
Delete the specified @emph{file lines}---not the files, just the lines
(@code{dired-do-kill-lines}).
@item s
Toggle between alphabetical order and date/time order
(@code{dired-sort-toggle-or-edit}).
@item C-u s @var{switches} @key{RET}
Refresh the Dired buffer using @var{switches} as
@code{dired-listing-switches}.
@end table
@kindex g @r{(Dired)}
@findex revert-buffer @r{(Dired)}
Type @kbd{g} (@code{revert-buffer}) to update the contents of the
Dired buffer, based on changes in the files and directories listed.
This preserves all marks except for those on files that have vanished.
Hidden subdirectories are updated but remain hidden.
@kindex l @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-redisplay
To update only some of the files, type @kbd{l}
(@code{dired-do-redisplay}). This command applies to the next @var{n}
files, or to the marked files if any, or to the current file. Updating
them means reading their current status from the file system and
changing the buffer to reflect it properly.
If you use @kbd{l} on a subdirectory header line, it updates the
contents of the corresponding subdirectory.
@kindex k @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-do-kill-lines
To delete the specified @emph{file lines}---not the files, just the
lines---type @kbd{k} (@code{dired-do-kill-lines}). With a numeric
argument @var{n}, this command applies to the next @var{n} files;
otherwise, it applies to the marked files.
If you kill the line for a file that is a directory, the directory's
contents are also deleted from the buffer. Typing @kbd{C-u k} on the
header line for a subdirectory is another way to delete a subdirectory
from the Dired buffer.
The @kbd{g} command brings back any individual lines that you have
killed in this way, but not subdirectories---you must use @kbd{i} to
reinsert each subdirectory.
@cindex Dired sorting
@cindex sorting Dired buffer
@kindex s @r{(Dired)}
@findex dired-sort-toggle-or-edit
The files in a Dired buffers are normally listed in alphabetical order
by file names. Alternatively Dired can sort them by date/time. The
Dired command @kbd{s} (@code{dired-sort-toggle-or-edit}) switches
between these two sorting modes. The mode line in a Dired buffer
indicates which way it is currently sorted---by name, or by date.
@kbd{C-u s @var{switches} @key{RET}} lets you specify a new value for
@code{dired-listing-switches}.
@node Dired and Find
@section Dired and @code{find}
@cindex @code{find} and Dired
You can select a set of files for display in a Dired buffer more
flexibly by using the @code{find} utility to choose the files.
@findex find-name-dired
To search for files with names matching a wildcard pattern use
@kbd{M-x find-name-dired}. It reads arguments @var{directory} and
@var{pattern}, and chooses all the files in @var{directory} or its
subdirectories whose individual names match @var{pattern}.
The files thus chosen are displayed in a Dired buffer in which the
ordinary Dired commands are available.
@findex find-grep-dired
If you want to test the contents of files, rather than their names,
use @kbd{M-x find-grep-dired}. This command reads two minibuffer
arguments, @var{directory} and @var{regexp}; it chooses all the files in
@var{directory} or its subdirectories that contain a match for
@var{regexp}. It works by running the programs @code{find} and
@code{grep}. See also @kbd{M-x grep-find}, in @ref{Compilation}.
Remember to write the regular expression for @code{grep}, not for Emacs.
@findex find-dired
The most general command in this series is @kbd{M-x find-dired}, which
lets you specify any condition that @code{find} can test. It takes two
minibuffer arguments, @var{directory} and @var{find-args}; it runs
@code{find} in @var{directory}, passing @var{find-args} to tell
@code{find} what condition to test. To use this command, you need to
know how to use @code{find}.
@vindex find-ls-option
The format of listing produced by these commands is controlled by the
variable @code{find-ls-option}, whose default value specifies using
options @samp{-ld} for @code{ls}. If your listings are corrupted, you
may need to change the value of this variable.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Display, Search, Registers, Top
@chapter Controlling the Display
Since only part of a large buffer fits in the window, Emacs tries to
show a part that is likely to be interesting. Display-control commands
allow you to specify which part of the text you want to see, and how to
display it.
@menu
* Scrolling:: Moving text up and down in a window.
* Horizontal Scrolling:: Moving text left and right in a window.
* Follow Mode:: Follow mode lets two windows scroll as one.
* Selective Display:: Hiding lines with lots of indentation.
* Optional Mode Line:: Optional mode line display features.
* Text Display:: How text characters are normally displayed.
* Display Vars:: Information on variables for customizing display.
@end menu
@node Scrolling
@section Scrolling
If a buffer contains text that is too large to fit entirely within a
window that is displaying the buffer, Emacs shows a contiguous portion of
the text. The portion shown always contains point.
@cindex scrolling
@dfn{Scrolling} means moving text up or down in the window so that
different parts of the text are visible. Scrolling forward means that text
moves up, and new text appears at the bottom. Scrolling backward moves
text down and new text appears at the top.
Scrolling happens automatically if you move point past the bottom or top
of the window. You can also explicitly request scrolling with the commands
in this section.
@table @kbd
@item C-l
Clear screen and redisplay, scrolling the selected window to center
point vertically within it (@code{recenter}).
@item C-v
Scroll forward (a windowful or a specified number of lines) (@code{scroll-up}).
@item @key{NEXT}
Likewise, scroll forward.
@item M-v
Scroll backward (@code{scroll-down}).
@item @key{PRIOR}
Likewise, scroll backward.
@item @var{arg} C-l
Scroll so point is on line @var{arg} (@code{recenter}).
@item C-M-l
Scroll heuristically to bring useful information onto the screen
(@code{reposition-window}).
@end table
@kindex C-l
@findex recenter
The most basic scrolling command is @kbd{C-l} (@code{recenter}) with
no argument. It clears the entire screen and redisplays all windows.
In addition, it scrolls the selected window so that point is halfway
down from the top of the window.
@kindex C-v
@kindex M-v
@kindex NEXT
@kindex PRIOR
@findex scroll-up
@findex scroll-down
The scrolling commands @kbd{C-v} and @kbd{M-v} let you move all the text
in the window up or down a few lines. @kbd{C-v} (@code{scroll-up}) with an
argument shows you that many more lines at the bottom of the window, moving
the text and point up together as @kbd{C-l} might. @kbd{C-v} with a
negative argument shows you more lines at the top of the window.
@kbd{M-v} (@code{scroll-down}) is like @kbd{C-v}, but moves in the
opposite direction. The function keys @key{NEXT} and @key{PRIOR} are
equivalent to @kbd{C-v} and @kbd{M-v}.
The names of scroll commands are based on the direction that the text
moves in the window. Thus, the command to scroll forward is called
@code{scroll-up} because it moves the text upward on the screen.
@vindex next-screen-context-lines
To read the buffer a windowful at a time, use @kbd{C-v} with no argument.
It takes the last two lines at the bottom of the window and puts them at
the top, followed by nearly a whole windowful of lines not previously
visible. If point was in the text scrolled off the top, it moves to the
new top of the window. @kbd{M-v} with no argument moves backward with
overlap similarly. The number of lines of overlap across a @kbd{C-v} or
@kbd{M-v} is controlled by the variable @code{next-screen-context-lines}; by
default, it is 2.
@vindex scroll-preserve-screen-position
Some users like the full-screen scroll commands to keep point at the
same screen line. To enable this behavior, set the variable
@code{scroll-preserve-screen-position} to a non-@code{nil} value. This
mode is convenient for browsing through a file by scrolling by
screenfuls; if you come back to the screen where you started, point goes
back to the line where it started. However, this mode is inconvenient
when you move to the next screen in order to move point to the text
there.
Another way to do scrolling is with @kbd{C-l} with a numeric argument.
@kbd{C-l} does not clear the screen when given an argument; it only scrolls
the selected window. With a positive argument @var{n}, it repositions text
to put point @var{n} lines down from the top. An argument of zero puts
point on the very top line. Point does not move with respect to the text;
rather, the text and point move rigidly on the screen. @kbd{C-l} with a
negative argument puts point that many lines from the bottom of the window.
For example, @kbd{C-u - 1 C-l} puts point on the bottom line, and @kbd{C-u
- 5 C-l} puts it five lines from the bottom. Just @kbd{C-u} as argument,
as in @kbd{C-u C-l}, scrolls point to the center of the selected window.
@kindex C-M-l
@findex reposition-window
The @kbd{C-M-l} command (@code{reposition-window}) scrolls the current
window heuristically in a way designed to get useful information onto
the screen. For example, in a Lisp file, this command tries to get the
entire current defun onto the screen if possible.
@vindex scroll-conservatively
Scrolling happens automatically if point has moved out of the visible
portion of the text when it is time to display. Normally, automatic
scrolling centers point vertically within the window. However, if you
set @code{scroll-conservatively} to a small number @var{n}, then if you
move point just a little off the screen---less than @var{n} lines---then
Emacs scrolls the text just far enough to bring point back on screen.
By default, @code{scroll-conservatively} is 0.
@vindex scroll-margin
The variable @code{scroll-margin} restricts how close point can come
to the top or bottom of a window. Its value is a number of screen
lines; if point comes within that many lines of the top or bottom of the
window, Emacs recenters the window. By default, @code{scroll-margin} is
0.
@node Horizontal Scrolling
@section Horizontal Scrolling
@cindex horizontal scrolling
@dfn{Horizontal scrolling} means shifting all the lines sideways
within a window---so that some of the text near the left margin
is not displayed at all.
@table @kbd
@item C-x <
Scroll text in current window to the left (@code{scroll-left}).
@item C-x >
Scroll to the right (@code{scroll-right}).
@end table
When a window has been scrolled horizontally, text lines are truncated
rather than continued (@pxref{Continuation Lines}), with a @samp{$}
appearing in the first column when there is text truncated to the left,
and in the last column when there is text truncated to the right.
@kindex C-x <
@kindex C-x >
@findex scroll-left
@findex scroll-right
The command @kbd{C-x <} (@code{scroll-left}) scrolls the selected
window to the left by @var{n} columns with argument @var{n}. This moves
part of the beginning of each line off the left edge of the window.
With no argument, it scrolls by almost the full width of the window (two
columns less, to be precise).
@kbd{C-x >} (@code{scroll-right}) scrolls similarly to the right. The
window cannot be scrolled any farther to the right once it is displayed
normally (with each line starting at the window's left margin);
attempting to do so has no effect. This means that you don't have to
calculate the argument precisely for @w{@kbd{C-x >}}; any sufficiently large
argument will restore the normal display.
@cindex Hscroll mode
@cindex mode, Hscroll
@findex hscroll-mode
You can request automatic horizontal scrolling by enabling Hscroll
mode. When this mode is enabled, Emacs scrolls a window horizontally
whenever that is necessary to keep point visible and not too far from
the left or right edge. The command to enable or disable this mode is
@kbd{M-x hscroll-mode}.
@node Follow Mode
@section Follow Mode
@cindex Follow mode
@cindex mode, Follow
@dfn{Follow mode} is a minor mode that makes two windows showing the
same buffer scroll as one tall ``virtual window.'' To use Follow mode,
go to a frame with just one window, split it into two side-by-side
windows using @kbd{C-x 3}, and then type @kbd{M-x follow-mode}. From
then on, you can edit the buffer in either of the two windows, or scroll
either one; the other window follows it.
To turn off Follow mode, type @kbd{M-x follow-mode} a second time.
@node Selective Display
@section Selective Display
@findex set-selective-display
@kindex C-x $
Emacs has the ability to hide lines indented more than a certain number
of columns (you specify how many columns). You can use this to get an
overview of a part of a program.
To hide lines, type @kbd{C-x $} (@code{set-selective-display}) with a
numeric argument @var{n}. Then lines with at least @var{n} columns of
indentation disappear from the screen. The only indication of their
presence is that three dots (@samp{@dots{}}) appear at the end of each
visible line that is followed by one or more hidden ones.
The commands @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} move across the hidden lines as
if they were not there.
The hidden lines are still present in the buffer, and most editing
commands see them as usual, so you may find point in the middle of the
hidden text. When this happens, the cursor appears at the end of the
previous line, after the three dots. If point is at the end of the
visible line, before the newline that ends it, the cursor appears before
the three dots.
To make all lines visible again, type @kbd{C-x $} with no argument.
@vindex selective-display-ellipses
If you set the variable @code{selective-display-ellipses} to
@code{nil}, the three dots do not appear at the end of a line that
precedes hidden lines. Then there is no visible indication of the
hidden lines. This variable becomes local automatically when set.
@node Optional Mode Line
@section Optional Mode Line Features
@cindex Line Number mode
@cindex mode, Line Number
@findex line-number-mode
The current line number of point appears in the mode line when Line
Number mode is enabled. Use the command @kbd{M-x line-number-mode} to
turn this mode on and off; normally it is on. The line number appears
before the buffer percentage @var{pos}, with the letter @samp{L} to
indicate what it is. @xref{Minor Modes}, for more information about
minor modes and about how to use this command.
@vindex line-number-display-limit
If the buffer is very large (larger than the value of
@code{line-number-display-limit}), then the line number doesn't appear.
Emacs doesn't compute the line number when the buffer is large, because
that would be too slow. If you have narrowed the buffer
(@pxref{Narrowing}), the displayed line number is relative to the
accessible portion of the buffer.
@cindex Column Number mode
@cindex mode, Column Number
@findex column-number-mode
You can also display the current column number by turning on Column
Number mode. It displays the current column number preceded by the
letter @samp{C}. Type @kbd{M-x column-number-mode} to toggle this mode.
@findex display-time
@cindex time (on mode line)
Emacs can optionally display the time and system load in all mode
lines. To enable this feature, type @kbd{M-x display-time}. The
information added to the mode line usually appears after the buffer
name, before the mode names and their parentheses. It looks like this:
@example
@var{hh}:@var{mm}pm @var{l.ll}
@end example
@noindent
@vindex display-time-24hr-format
Here @var{hh} and @var{mm} are the hour and minute, followed always by
@samp{am} or @samp{pm}. @var{l.ll} is the average number of running
processes in the whole system recently. (Some fields may be missing if
your operating system cannot support them.) If you prefer time display
in 24-hour format, set the variable @code{display-time-24hr-format}
to @code{t}.
@cindex mail (on mode line)
The word @samp{Mail} appears after the load level if there is mail
for you that you have not read yet.
@node Text Display
@section How Text Is Displayed
@cindex characters (in text)
ASCII printing characters (octal codes 040 through 0176) in Emacs
buffers are displayed with their graphics. So are non-ASCII multibyte
printing characters (octal codes above 0400).
Some ASCII control characters are displayed in special ways. The
newline character (octal code 012) is displayed by starting a new line.
The tab character (octal code 011) is displayed by moving to the next
tab stop column (normally every 8 columns).
Other ASCII control characters are normally displayed as a caret
(@samp{^}) followed by the non-control version of the character; thus,
control-A is displayed as @samp{^A}.
Non-ASCII characters 0200 through 0377 are displayed with octal escape
sequences; thus, character code 0243 (octal) is displayed as
@samp{\243}. However, if you enable European display, most of these
characters become non-ASCII printing characters, and are displayed using
their graphics (assuming your terminal supports them).
@xref{Single-Byte European Support}.
@node Display Vars
@section Variables Controlling Display
This section contains information for customization only. Beginning
users should skip it.
@vindex mode-line-inverse-video
The variable @code{mode-line-inverse-video} controls whether the mode
line is displayed in inverse video (assuming the terminal supports it);
@code{nil} means don't do so. @xref{Mode Line}. If you specify the
foreground color for the @code{modeline} face, and
@code{mode-line-inverse-video} is non-@code{nil}, then the default
background color for that face is the usual foreground color.
@xref{Faces}.
@vindex inverse-video
If the variable @code{inverse-video} is non-@code{nil}, Emacs attempts
to invert all the lines of the display from what they normally are.
@vindex visible-bell
If the variable @code{visible-bell} is non-@code{nil}, Emacs attempts
to make the whole screen blink when it would normally make an audible bell
sound. This variable has no effect if your terminal does not have a way
to make the screen blink.@refill
@vindex no-redraw-on-reenter
When you reenter Emacs after suspending, Emacs normally clears the
screen and redraws the entire display. On some terminals with more than
one page of memory, it is possible to arrange the termcap entry so that
the @samp{ti} and @samp{te} strings (output to the terminal when Emacs
is entered and exited, respectively) switch between pages of memory so
as to use one page for Emacs and another page for other output. Then
you might want to set the variable @code{no-redraw-on-reenter}
non-@code{nil}; this tells Emacs to assume, when resumed, that the
screen page it is using still contains what Emacs last wrote there.
@vindex echo-keystrokes
The variable @code{echo-keystrokes} controls the echoing of multi-character
keys; its value is the number of seconds of pause required to cause echoing
to start, or zero meaning don't echo at all. @xref{Echo Area}.
@vindex ctl-arrow
If the variable @code{ctl-arrow} is @code{nil}, control characters in
the buffer are displayed with octal escape sequences, except for newline
and tab. Altering the value of @code{ctl-arrow} makes it local to the
current buffer; until that time, the default value is in effect. The
default is initially @code{t}. @xref{Display Tables,, Display Tables,
elisp, The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.
@vindex tab-width
Normally, a tab character in the buffer is displayed as whitespace which
extends to the next display tab stop position, and display tab stops come
at intervals equal to eight spaces. The number of spaces per tab is
controlled by the variable @code{tab-width}, which is made local by
changing it, just like @code{ctl-arrow}. Note that how the tab character
in the buffer is displayed has nothing to do with the definition of
@key{TAB} as a command. The variable @code{tab-width} must have an
integer value between 1 and 1000, inclusive.
@c @vindex truncate-lines @c No index entry here, because we have one
@c in the continuation section.
If the variable @code{truncate-lines} is non-@code{nil}, then each
line of text gets just one screen line for display; if the text line is
too long, display shows only the part that fits. If
@code{truncate-lines} is @code{nil}, then long text lines display as
more than one screen line, enough to show the whole text of the line.
@xref{Continuation Lines}. Altering the value of @code{truncate-lines}
makes it local to the current buffer; until that time, the default value
is in effect. The default is initially @code{nil}.
@c @vindex truncate-partial-width-windows @c Idx entry is in Split Windows.
If the variable @code{truncate-partial-width-windows} is
non-@code{nil}, it forces truncation rather than continuation in any
window less than the full width of the screen or frame, regardless of
the value of @code{truncate-lines}. For information about side-by-side
windows, see @ref{Split Window}. See also @ref{Display,, Display,
elisp, The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.
@vindex baud-rate
The variable @code{baud-rate} holds the output speed of the
terminal, as far as Emacs knows. Setting this variable does not change
the speed of actual data transmission, but the value is used for
calculations such as padding. It also affects decisions about whether
to scroll part of the screen or redraw it instead---even when using a
window system. (We designed it this way, despite the fact that a window
system has no true ``output speed,'' to give you a way to tune these
decisions.)
You can customize the way any particular character code is displayed
by means of a display table. @xref{Display Tables,, Display Tables,
elisp, The Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Entering Emacs, Exiting, Text Characters, Top
@chapter Entering and Exiting Emacs
@cindex entering Emacs
@cindex starting Emacs
The usual way to invoke Emacs is with the shell command @samp{emacs}.
Emacs clears the screen and then displays an initial help message and
copyright notice. Some operating systems discard all type-ahead when
Emacs starts up; they give Emacs no way to prevent this. Therefore, it
is advisable to wait until Emacs clears the screen before typing your
first editing command.
If you run Emacs from a shell window under the X Window System, run it
in the background with @samp{emacs&}. This way, Emacs does not tie up
the shell window, so you can use that to run other shell commands while
Emacs operates its own X windows. You can begin typing Emacs commands
as soon as you direct your keyboard input to the Emacs frame.
@vindex initial-major-mode
When Emacs starts up, it makes a buffer named @samp{*scratch*}.
That's the buffer you start out in. The @samp{*scratch*} buffer uses Lisp
Interaction mode; you can use it to type Lisp expressions and evaluate
them, or you can ignore that capability and simply doodle. (You can
specify a different major mode for this buffer by setting the variable
@code{initial-major-mode} in your init file. @xref{Init File}.)
It is possible to specify files to be visited, Lisp files to be
loaded, and functions to be called, by giving Emacs arguments in the
shell command line. @xref{Command Arguments}. But we don't recommend
doing this. The feature exists mainly for compatibility with other
editors.
Many other editors are designed to be started afresh each time you
want to edit. You edit one file and then exit the editor. The next
time you want to edit either another file or the same one, you must run
the editor again. With these editors, it makes sense to use a
command-line argument to say which file to edit.
But starting a new Emacs each time you want to edit a different file
does not make sense. For one thing, this would be annoyingly slow. For
another, this would fail to take advantage of Emacs's ability to visit
more than one file in a single editing session. And it would lose the
other accumulated context, such as registers, undo history, and the mark
ring.
The recommended way to use GNU Emacs is to start it only once, just
after you log in, and do all your editing in the same Emacs session.
Each time you want to edit a different file, you visit it with the
existing Emacs, which eventually comes to have many files in it ready
for editing. Usually you do not kill the Emacs until you are about to
log out. @xref{Files}, for more information on visiting more than one
file.
@node Exiting, Basic, Entering Emacs, Top
@section Exiting Emacs
@cindex exiting
@cindex killing Emacs
@cindex suspending
@cindex leaving Emacs
@cindex quitting Emacs
There are two commands for exiting Emacs because there are two kinds
of exiting: @dfn{suspending} Emacs and @dfn{killing} Emacs.
@dfn{Suspending} means stopping Emacs temporarily and returning
control to its parent process (usually a shell), allowing you to resume
editing later in the same Emacs job, with the same buffers, same kill
ring, same undo history, and so on. This is the usual way to exit.
@dfn{Killing} Emacs means destroying the Emacs job. You can run Emacs
again later, but you will get a fresh Emacs; there is no way to resume
the same editing session after it has been killed.
@table @kbd
@item C-z
Suspend Emacs (@code{suspend-emacs}) or iconify a frame
(@code{iconify-or-deiconify-frame}).
@item C-x C-c
Kill Emacs (@code{save-buffers-kill-emacs}).
@end table
@kindex C-z
@findex suspend-emacs
To suspend Emacs, type @kbd{C-z} (@code{suspend-emacs}). This takes
you back to the shell from which you invoked Emacs. You can resume
Emacs with the shell command @samp{%emacs} in most common shells.
On systems that do not support suspending programs, @kbd{C-z} starts
an inferior shell that communicates directly with the terminal.
Emacs waits until you exit the subshell. (The way to do that is
probably with @kbd{C-d} or @samp{exit}, but it depends on which shell
you use.) The only way on these systems to get back to the shell from
which Emacs was run (to log out, for example) is to kill Emacs.
Suspending also fails if you run Emacs under a shell that doesn't
support suspending programs, even if the system itself does support it.
In such a case, you can set the variable @code{cannot-suspend} to a
non-@code{nil} value to force @kbd{C-z} to start an inferior shell.
(One might also describe Emacs's parent shell as ``inferior'' for
failing to support job control properly, but that is a matter of taste.)
When Emacs communicates directly with an X server and creates its own
dedicated X windows, @kbd{C-z} has a different meaning. Suspending an
applications that uses its own X windows is not meaningful or useful.
Instead, @kbd{C-z} runs the command @code{iconify-or-deiconify-frame},
which temporarily closes up the selected Emacs frame (@pxref{Frames}).
The way to get back to a shell window is with the window manager.
@kindex C-x C-c
@findex save-buffers-kill-emacs
To kill Emacs, type @kbd{C-x C-c} (@code{save-buffers-kill-emacs}). A
two-character key is used for this to make it harder to type. This
command first offers to save any modified file-visiting buffers. If you
do not save them all, it asks for reconfirmation with @kbd{yes} before
killing Emacs, since any changes not saved will be lost forever. Also,
if any subprocesses are still running, @kbd{C-x C-c} asks for
confirmation about them, since killing Emacs will kill the subprocesses
immediately.
There is no way to restart an Emacs session once you have killed it.
You can, however, arrange for Emacs to record certain session
information, such as which files are visited, when you kill it, so that
the next time you restart Emacs it will try to visit the same files and
so on. @xref{Saving Emacs Sessions}.
The operating system usually listens for certain special characters
whose meaning is to kill or suspend the program you are running.
@b{This operating system feature is turned off while you are in Emacs.}
The meanings of @kbd{C-z} and @kbd{C-x C-c} as keys in Emacs were
inspired by the use of @kbd{C-z} and @kbd{C-c} on several operating
systems as the characters for stopping or killing a program, but that is
their only relationship with the operating system. You can customize
these keys to run any commands of your choice (@pxref{Keymaps}).

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Fixit, Files, Search, Top
@chapter Commands for Fixing Typos
@cindex typos, fixing
@cindex mistakes, correcting
In this chapter we describe the commands that are especially useful for
the times when you catch a mistake in your text just after you have made
it, or change your mind while composing text on the fly.
The most fundamental command for correcting erroneous editing is the
undo command, @kbd{C-x u} or @kbd{C-_}. This command undoes a single
command (usually), a part of a command (in the case of
@code{query-replace}), or several consecutive self-inserting characters.
Consecutive repetitions of @kbd{C-_} or @kbd{C-x u} undo earlier and
earlier changes, back to the limit of the undo information available.
@xref{Undo}, for for more information.
@menu
* Kill Errors:: Commands to kill a batch of recently entered text.
* Transpose:: Exchanging two characters, words, lines, lists...
* Fixing Case:: Correcting case of last word entered.
* Spelling:: Apply spelling checker to a word, or a whole file.
@end menu
@node Kill Errors
@section Killing Your Mistakes
@table @kbd
@item @key{DEL}
Delete last character (@code{delete-backward-char}).
@item M-@key{DEL}
Kill last word (@code{backward-kill-word}).
@item C-x @key{DEL}
Kill to beginning of sentence (@code{backward-kill-sentence}).
@end table
The @key{DEL} character (@code{delete-backward-char}) is the most
important correction command. It deletes the character before point.
When @key{DEL} follows a self-inserting character command, you can think
of it as canceling that command. However, avoid the mistake of thinking
of @key{DEL} as a general way to cancel a command!
When your mistake is longer than a couple of characters, it might be
more convenient to use @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} or @kbd{C-x @key{DEL}}.
@kbd{M-@key{DEL}} kills back to the start of the last word, and @kbd{C-x
@key{DEL}} kills back to the start of the last sentence. @kbd{C-x
@key{DEL}} is particularly useful when you change your mind about the
phrasing of the text you are writing. @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} and @kbd{C-x
@key{DEL}} save the killed text for @kbd{C-y} and @kbd{M-y} to
retrieve. @xref{Yanking}.@refill
@kbd{M-@key{DEL}} is often useful even when you have typed only a few
characters wrong, if you know you are confused in your typing and aren't
sure exactly what you typed. At such a time, you cannot correct with
@key{DEL} except by looking at the screen to see what you did. Often it
requires less thought to kill the whole word and start again.
@node Transpose
@section Transposing Text
@table @kbd
@item C-t
Transpose two characters (@code{transpose-chars}).
@item M-t
Transpose two words (@code{transpose-words}).
@item C-M-t
Transpose two balanced expressions (@code{transpose-sexps}).
@item C-x C-t
Transpose two lines (@code{transpose-lines}).
@end table
@kindex C-t
@findex transpose-chars
The common error of transposing two characters can be fixed, when they
are adjacent, with the @kbd{C-t} command (@code{transpose-chars}). Normally,
@kbd{C-t} transposes the two characters on either side of point. When
given at the end of a line, rather than transposing the last character of
the line with the newline, which would be useless, @kbd{C-t} transposes the
last two characters on the line. So, if you catch your transposition error
right away, you can fix it with just a @kbd{C-t}. If you don't catch it so
fast, you must move the cursor back to between the two transposed
characters. If you transposed a space with the last character of the word
before it, the word motion commands are a good way of getting there.
Otherwise, a reverse search (@kbd{C-r}) is often the best way.
@xref{Search}.
@kindex C-x C-t
@findex transpose-lines
@kindex M-t
@findex transpose-words
@kindex C-M-t
@findex transpose-sexps
@kbd{M-t} (@code{transpose-words}) transposes the word before point
with the word after point. It moves point forward over a word, dragging
the word preceding or containing point forward as well. The punctuation
characters between the words do not move. For example, @w{@samp{FOO, BAR}}
transposes into @w{@samp{BAR, FOO}} rather than @samp{@w{BAR FOO,}}.
@kbd{C-M-t} (@code{transpose-sexps}) is a similar command for transposing
two expressions (@pxref{Lists}), and @kbd{C-x C-t} (@code{transpose-lines})
exchanges lines. They work like @kbd{M-t} except in determining the
division of the text into syntactic units.
A numeric argument to a transpose command serves as a repeat count: it
tells the transpose command to move the character (word, sexp, line)
before or containing point across several other characters (words,
sexps, lines). For example, @kbd{C-u 3 C-t} moves the character before
point forward across three other characters. It would change
@samp{f@point{}oobar} into @samp{oobf@point{}ar}. This is equivalent to
repeating @kbd{C-t} three times. @kbd{C-u - 4 M-t} moves the word
before point backward across four words. @kbd{C-u - C-M-t} would cancel
the effect of plain @kbd{C-M-t}.@refill
A numeric argument of zero is assigned a special meaning (because
otherwise a command with a repeat count of zero would do nothing): to
transpose the character (word, sexp, line) ending after point with the
one ending after the mark.
@node Fixing Case
@section Case Conversion
@table @kbd
@item M-- M-l
Convert last word to lower case. Note @kbd{Meta--} is Meta-minus.
@item M-- M-u
Convert last word to all upper case.
@item M-- M-c
Convert last word to lower case with capital initial.
@end table
@kindex M-@t{-} M-l
@kindex M-@t{-} M-u
@kindex M-@t{-} M-c
A very common error is to type words in the wrong case. Because of this,
the word case-conversion commands @kbd{M-l}, @kbd{M-u} and @kbd{M-c} have a
special feature when used with a negative argument: they do not move the
cursor. As soon as you see you have mistyped the last word, you can simply
case-convert it and go on typing. @xref{Case}.@refill
@node Spelling
@section Checking and Correcting Spelling
@cindex spelling, checking and correcting
@cindex checking spelling
@cindex correcting spelling
This section describes the commands to check the spelling of a single
word or of a portion of a buffer. These commands work with the spelling
checker program Ispell, which is not part of Emacs.
@ifinfo
@xref{Top, Ispell, Overview ispell, ispell.info, The Ispell Manual}.
@end ifinfo
@table @kbd
@item M-x flyspell-mode
Enable Flyspell mode, which highlights all misspelled words.
@item M-$
Check and correct spelling of the word at point (@code{ispell-word}).
@item M-@key{TAB}
Complete the word before point based on the spelling dictionary
(@code{ispell-complete-word}).
@item M-x ispell-buffer
Check and correct spelling of each word in the buffer.
@item M-x ispell-region
Check and correct spelling of each word in the region.
@item M-x ispell-message
Check and correct spelling of each word in a draft mail message,
excluding cited material.
@item M-x ispell-change-dictionary @key{RET} @var{dict} @key{RET}
Restart the Ispell process, using @var{dict} as the dictionary.
@item M-x ispell-kill-ispell
Kill the Ispell subprocess.
@end table
@cindex Flyspell mode
@findex flyspell-mode
Flyspell mode is a fully-automatic way to check spelling as you edit
in Emacs. It operates by checking words as you change or insert them.
When it finds a word that it does not recognize, it highlights that
word. This does not interfere with your editing, but when you see the
highlighted word, you can move to it and fix it. Type @kbd{M-x
flyspell-mode} to enable or disable this mode in the current buffer.
When Flyspell mode highlights a word as misspelled, you can click on
it with @kbd{Mouse-2} to display a menu of possible corrections and
actions. You can also correct the word by editing it manually in any
way you like.
The other Emacs spell-checking features check or look up words when
you give an explicit command to do so. Checking all or part of the
buffer is useful when you have text that was written outside of this
Emacs session and might contain any number of misspellings.
@kindex M-$
@findex ispell-word
To check the spelling of the word around or next to point, and
optionally correct it as well, use the command @kbd{M-$}
(@code{ispell-word}). If the word is not correct, the command offers
you various alternatives for what to do about it.
@findex ispell-buffer
@findex ispell-region
To check the entire current buffer, use @kbd{M-x ispell-buffer}. Use
@kbd{M-x ispell-region} to check just the current region. To check
spelling in an email message you are writing, use @kbd{M-x
ispell-message}; that checks the whole buffer, but does not check
material that is indented or appears to be cited from other messages.
Each time these commands encounter an incorrect word, they ask you
what to do. They display a list of alternatives, usually including
several ``near-misses''---words that are close to the word being
checked. Then you must type a character. Here are the valid responses:
@table @kbd
@item @key{SPC}
Skip this word---continue to consider it incorrect, but don't change it
here.
@item r @var{new} @key{RET}
Replace the word (just this time) with @var{new}.
@item R @var{new} @key{RET}
Replace the word with @var{new}, and do a @code{query-replace} so you
can replace it elsewhere in the buffer if you wish.
@item @var{digit}
Replace the word (just this time) with one of the displayed
near-misses. Each near-miss is listed with a digit; type that digit to
select it.
@item a
Accept the incorrect word---treat it as correct, but only in this
editing session.
@item A
Accept the incorrect word---treat it as correct, but only in this
editing session and for this buffer.
@item i
Insert this word in your private dictionary file so that Ispell will
consider it correct it from now on, even in future sessions.
@item u
Insert the lower-case version of this word in your private dictionary
file.
@item m
Like @kbd{i}, but you can also specify dictionary completion
information.
@item l @var{word} @key{RET}
Look in the dictionary for words that match @var{word}. These words
become the new list of ``near-misses''; you can select one of them to
replace with by typing a digit. You can use @samp{*} in @var{word} as a
wildcard.
@item C-g
Quit interactive spell checking. You can restart it again afterward
with @kbd{C-u M-$}.
@item X
Same as @kbd{C-g}.
@item x
Quit interactive spell checking and move point back to where it was
when you started spell checking.
@item q
Quit interactive spell checking and kill the Ispell subprocess.
@item C-l
Refresh the screen.
@item C-z
This key has its normal command meaning (suspend Emacs or iconify this
frame).
@end table
@findex ispell-complete-word
The command @code{ispell-complete-word}, which is bound to the key
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}} in Text mode and related modes, shows a list of
completions based on spelling correction. Insert the beginning of a
word, and then type @kbd{M-@key{TAB}}; the command displays a completion
list window. To choose one of the completions listed, click
@kbd{Mouse-2} on it, or move the cursor there in the completions window
and type @key{RET}. @xref{Text Mode}.
@ignore
@findex reload-ispell
The first time you use any of the spell checking commands, it starts
an Ispell subprocess. The first thing the subprocess does is read your
private dictionary, which defaults to the file @file{~/ispell.words}.
Words that you ``insert'' with the @kbd{i} command are added to that
file, but not right away---only at the end of the interactive
replacement procedure. Use the @kbd{M-x reload-ispell} command to
reload your private dictionary if you edit the file outside of Ispell.
@end ignore
@cindex @code{ispell} program
@findex ispell-kill-ispell
Once started, the Ispell subprocess continues to run (waiting for
something to do), so that subsequent spell checking commands complete
more quickly. If you want to get rid of the Ispell process, use
@kbd{M-x ispell-kill-ispell}. This is not usually necessary, since the
process uses no time except when you do spelling correction.
@vindex ispell-dictionary
Ispell uses two dictionaries: the standard dictionary and your private
dictionary. The variable @code{ispell-dictionary} specifies the file
name of the standard dictionary to use. A value of @code{nil} says to
use the default dictionary. The command @kbd{M-x
ispell-change-dictionary} sets this variable and then restarts the
Ispell subprocess, so that it will use a different dictionary.

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\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*-
@c documentation for forms-mode
@c Written by Johan Vromans, and edited by Richard Stallman
@comment %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.)
@setfilename ../info/forms
@settitle Forms Mode User's Manual
@syncodeindex vr cp
@syncodeindex fn cp
@syncodeindex ky cp
@iftex
@finalout
@setchapternewpage odd
@end iftex
@c @smallbook
@comment %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.)
@dircategory Editors
@direntry
* Forms: (forms). Emacs package for editing data bases
by filling in forms.
@end direntry
@ifinfo
This file documents Forms mode, a form-editing major mode for GNU Emacs.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
@ignore
Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the
results, provided the printed document carries copying permission notice
identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this
paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).
@end ignore
@end ifinfo
@iftex
@titlepage
@sp 6
@center @titlefont{Forms Mode User's Manual}
@sp 4
@center Forms-Mode version 2
@sp 1
@center for GNU Emacs 20.1
@sp 1
@center June 1997
@sp 5
@center Johan Vromans
@center @i{jvromans@@squirrel.nl}
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright{} 1989, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.
@page
@end titlepage
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@node Top
@top Forms Mode
Forms mode is an Emacs major mode for working with simple textual data
bases in a forms-oriented manner. In Forms mode, the information in
these files is presented in an Emacs window in a user-defined format,
one record at a time. The user can view records or modify their
contents.
Forms mode is not a simple major mode, but requires two files to do its
job: a control file and a data file. The data file holds the
actual data to be presented. The control file describes
how to present it.
@menu
* Forms Example:: An example: editing the password data base.
* Entering and Exiting Forms Mode::
How to visit a file in Forms mode.
* Forms Commands:: Special commands to use while in Forms mode.
* Data File Format:: How to format the data file.
* Control File Format:: How to control forms mode.
* Format Description:: How to define the forms layout.
* Modifying Forms Contents:: How to modify.
* Miscellaneous:: Forms mode messages and other remarks.
* Error Messages:: List of error messages forms mode can produce.
* Long Example:: A more complex control file example.
* Credits:: Thanks everyone.
* Index:: Index to this manual.
@end menu
@end ifinfo
@node Forms Example
@chapter Forms Example
Let's illustrate Forms mode with an example. Suppose you are looking at
the @file{/etc/passwd} file, and the screen looks like this:
@example
====== /etc/passwd ======
User : root Uid: 0 Gid: 1
Name : Super User
Home : /
Shell: /bin/sh
@end example
As you can see, the familiar fields from the entry for the super user
are all there, but instead of being colon-separated on one single line,
they make up a forms.
The contents of the forms consist of the contents of the fields of the
record (e.g. @samp{root}, @samp{0}, @samp{1}, @samp{Super User})
interspersed with normal text (e.g @samp{User : }, @samp{Uid: }).
If you modify the contents of the fields, Forms mode will analyze your
changes and update the file appropriately. You cannot modify the
interspersed explanatory text (unless you go to some trouble about it),
because that is marked read-only (@pxref{Text Properties,,, elisp, The
Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}).
The Forms mode control file specifies the relationship between the
format of @file{/etc/passwd} and what appears on the screen in Forms
mode. @xref{Control File Format}.
@node Entering and Exiting Forms Mode
@chapter Entering and Exiting Forms Mode
@table @kbd
@findex forms-find-file
@item M-x forms-find-file @key{RET} @var{control-file} @key{RET}
Visit a database using Forms mode. Specify the name of the
@strong{control file}, not the data file!
@findex forms-find-file-other-window
@item M-x forms-find-file-other-window @key{RET} @var{control-file} @key{RET}
Similar, but displays the file in another window.
@end table
The command @code{forms-find-file} evaluates the file
@var{control-file}, and also visits it in Forms mode. What you see in
its buffer is not the contents of this file, but rather a single record
of the corresponding data file that is visited in its own buffer. So
there are two buffers involved in Forms mode: the @dfn{forms buffer}
that is initially used to visit the control file and that shows the
records being browsed, and the @dfn{data buffer} that holds the data
file being visited. The latter buffer is normally not visible.
Initially, the first record is displayed in the forms buffer.
The mode line displays the major mode name @samp{Forms}, followed by the
minor mode @samp{View} if the data base is read-only. The number of the
current record (@var{n}) and the total number of records in the
file(@var{t}) are shown in the mode line as @samp{@var{n}/@var{t}}. For
example:
@example
--%%-Emacs: passwd-demo (Forms View 1/54)----All-------
@end example
If the buffer is not read-only, you may change the buffer to modify the
fields in the record. When you move to a different record, the contents
of the buffer are parsed using the specifications in
@code{forms-format-list}, and the data file is updated. If the record
has fields that aren't included in the display, they are not changed.
@vindex forms-mode-hooks
Entering Forms mode runs the normal hook @code{forms-mode-hooks} to
perform user-defined customization.
To save any modified data, you can use @kbd{C-x C-s}
(@code{forms-save-buffer}). This does not save the forms buffer (which would
be rather useless), but instead saves the buffer visiting the data file.
To terminate Forms mode, you can use @kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{forms-save-buffer})
and then kill the forms buffer. However, the data buffer will still
remain. If this is not desired, you have to kill this buffer too.
@node Forms Commands
@chapter Forms Commands
The commands of Forms mode belong to the @kbd{C-c} prefix, with one
exception: @key{TAB}, which moves to the next field. Forms mode uses
different key maps for normal mode and read-only mode. In read-only
Forms mode, you can access most of the commands without the @kbd{C-c}
prefix, but you must type ordinary letters instead of control
characters; for example, type @kbd{n} instead of @kbd{C-c C-n}.
If your Emacs has been built with X-toolkit support, Forms mode will
provide its own menu with a number of Forms mode commands.
@table @kbd
@findex forms-next-record
@kindex C-c C-n
@item C-c C-n
Show the next record (@code{forms-next-record}). With a numeric
argument @var{n}, show the @var{n}th next record.
@findex forms-prev-record
@kindex C-c C-p
@item C-c C-p
Show the previous record (@code{forms-prev-record}). With a numeric
argument @var{n}, show the @var{n}th previous record.
@findex forms-jump-record
@kindex C-c C-l
@item C-c C-l
Jump to a record by number (@code{forms-jump-record}). Specify
the record number with a numeric argument.
@findex forms-first-record
@kindex C-c <
@item C-c <
Jump to the first record (@code{forms-first-record}).
@findex forms-last-record
@kindex C-c >
@item C-c >
Jump to the last record (@code{forms-last-record}). This command also
recalculates the number of records in the data file.
@findex forms-next-field
@kindex TAB
@item @key{TAB}
@kindex C-c TAB
@itemx C-c @key{TAB}
Jump to the next field in the current record (@code{forms-next-field}).
With a numeric argument @var{n}, jump forward @var{n} fields. If this command
would move past the last field, it wraps around to the first field.
@findex forms-toggle-read-only
@kindex C-c C-q
@item C-c C-q
Toggles read-only mode (@code{forms-toggle-read-only}). In read-only
Forms mode, you cannot edit the fields; most Forms mode commands can be
accessed without the prefix @kbd{C-c} if you use the normal letter
instead (for example, type @kbd{n} instead of @kbd{C-c C-n}). In edit
mode, you can edit the fields and thus change the contents of the data
base; you must begin Forms mode commands with @code{C-c}. Switching
to edit mode is allowed only if you have write access to the data file.
@findex forms-insert-record
@kindex C-c C-o
@item C-c C-o
Create a new record and insert it before the current record
(@code{forms-insert-record}). It starts out with empty (or default)
contents for its fields; you can then edit the fields. With a numeric
argument, the new record is created @emph{after} the current one.
See also @code{forms-modified-record-filter} in @ref{Modifying Forms
Contents}.
@findex forms-delete-record
@kindex C-c C-k
@item C-c C-k
Delete the current record (@code{forms-delete-record}). You are
prompted for confirmation before the record is deleted unless a numeric
argument has been provided.
@findex forms-search-forward
@kindex C-c C-s @var{regexp} @key{RET}
@item C-c C-s @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Search forward for @var{regexp} in all records following this one
(@code{forms-search-forward}). If found, this record is shown.
If you give an empty argument, the previous regexp is used again.
@findex forms-search-backward
@kindex C-c C-r @var{regexp} @key{RET}
@item C-c C-r @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Search backward for @var{regexp} in all records following this one
(@code{forms-search-backward}). If found, this record is shown.
If you give an empty argument, the previous regexp is used again.
@ignore
@findex forms-exit
@kindex C-c C-x
@item C-c C-x
Terminate Forms mode processing (@code{forms-exit}). The data file is
saved if it has been modified.
@findex forms-exit-no-save
@item M-x forms-exit-no-save
Terminates forms mode processing without saving modified data first.
@end ignore
@findex forms-prev-field
@item M-x forms-prev-field
Similar to @code{forms-next-field} but moves backwards.
@findex forms-save-buffer
@item M-x forms-save-buffer
@kindex C-x C-s
@itemx C-x C-s
Forms mode replacement for @code{save-buffer}. When executed in the
forms buffer it will save the contents of the (modified) data buffer
instead. In Forms mode this function will be bound to @kbd{C-x C-s}.
@findex forms-print
@item M-x forms-print
This command can be used to make a formatted print
of the contents of the data file.
@end table
In addition the command @kbd{M-x revert-buffer} is useful in Forms mode
just as in other modes.
@ignore
@vindex forms-forms-scroll
@findex scroll-up
@findex scroll-down
If the variable @code{forms-forms-scrolls} is set to a value other
than @code{nil} (which it is, by default), the Emacs functions
@code{scroll-up} and @code{scroll-down} will perform a
@code{forms-next-record} and @code{forms-prev-record} when in forms
mode. So you can use your favourite page commands to page through the
data file.
@vindex forms-forms-jump
@findex beginning-of-buffer
@findex end-of-buffer
Likewise, if the variable @code{forms-forms-jump} is not @code{nil}
(which it is, by default), Emacs functions @code{beginning-of-buffer}
and @code{end-of-buffer} will perform @code{forms-first-record} and
@code{forms-last-record} when in forms mode.
@end ignore
The following function key definitions are set up in Forms mode
(whether read-only or not):
@table @kbd
@kindex next
@item next
forms-next-record
@kindex prior
@item prior
forms-prev-record
@kindex begin
@item begin
forms-first-record
@kindex end
@item end
forms-last-record
@kindex S-Tab
@findex forms-prev-field
@item S-Tab
forms-prev-field
@end table
@node Data File Format
@chapter Data File Format
@cindex record
@cindex field
@vindex forms-field-sep
Files for use with Forms mode are very simple---each @dfn{record}
(usually one line) forms the contents of one form. Each record consists
of a number of @dfn{fields}, which are separated by the value of the
string @code{forms-field-sep}, which is @code{"\t"} (a Tab) by default.
@vindex forms-read-file-filter
@vindex forms-write-file-filter
If the format of the data file is not suitable enough you can define the
filter functions @code{forms-read-file-filter} and
@code{forms-write-file-filter}. @code{forms-read-file-filter} is called
when the data file is read from disk into the data buffer. It operates
on the data buffer, ignoring read-only protections. When the data file
is saved to disk @code{forms-write-file-filter} is called to cancel the
effects of @code{forms-read-file-filter}. After being saved,
@code{forms-read-file-filter} is called again to prepare the data buffer
for further processing.
@cindex pseudo-newline
@vindex forms-multi-line
Fields may contain text which shows up in the forms in multiple lines.
These lines are separated in the field using a ``pseudo-newline''
character which is defined by the value of the string
@code{forms-multi-line}. Its default value is @code{"\^k"} (a Control-K
character). If it is
set to @code{nil}, multiple line fields are prohibited.
If the data file does not exist, it is automatically created.
@node Control File Format
@chapter Control File Format
@cindex control file
The Forms mode @dfn{control file} serves two purposes. First, it names
the data file to use, and defines its format and properties. Second,
the Emacs buffer it occupies is used by Forms mode to display the forms.
The contents of the control file are evaluated as a Lisp program. It
should set the following Lisp variables to suitable values:
@table @code
@vindex forms-file
@item forms-file
This variable specifies the name of the data file. Example:
@example
(setq forms-file "my/data-file")
@end example
If the control file doesn't set @code{forms-file}, Forms mode
reports an error.
@vindex forms-format-list
@item forms-format-list
This variable describes the way the fields of the record are formatted on
the screen. For details, see @ref{Format Description}.
@vindex forms-number-of-fields
@item forms-number-of-fields
This variable holds the number of fields in each record of the data
file. Example:
@example
(setq forms-number-of-fields 10)
@end example
@end table
If the control file does not set @code{forms-format-list} a default
format is used. In this situation, Forms mode will deduce the number of
fields from the data file providing this file exists and
@code{forms-number-of-records} has not been set in the control file.
The control file can optionally set the following additional Forms mode
variables. Most of them have default values that are good for most
applications.
@table @code
@vindex forms-field-sep
@item forms-field-sep
This variable may be used to designate the string which separates the
fields in the records of the data file. If not set, it defaults to the
string @code{"\t"} (a Tab character). Example:
@example
(setq forms-field-sep "\t")
@end example
@vindex forms-read-only
@item forms-read-only
If the value is non-@code{nil}, the data file is treated read-only. (Forms
mode also treats the data file as read-only if you don't have access to
write it.) Example:
@example
(set forms-read-only t)
@end example
@vindex forms-multi-line
@item forms-multi-line
This variable specifies the @dfn{pseudo newline} separator that allows
multi-line fields. This separator goes between the ``lines'' within a
field---thus, the field doesn't really contain multiple lines, but it
appears that way when displayed in Forms mode. If the value is
@code{nil}, multi-line text fields are prohibited. The pseudo newline
must not be a character contained in @code{forms-field-sep}.
The default value is @code{"\^k"}, the character Control-K. Example:
@example
(setq forms-multi-line "\^k")
@end example
@ignore
@vindex forms-forms-scroll
@item forms-forms-scroll
@xref{Forms Mode Commands}, for details.
@vindex forms-forms-jump
@item forms-forms-jump
@xref{Forms Mode Commands}, for details.
@end ignore
@findex forms-read-file-filter
@item forms-read-file-filter
This variable holds the name of a function to be called after the data
file has been read in. This can be used to transform the contents of the
data file into a format more suitable for forms processing.
If it is @code{nil}, no function is called. For example, to maintain a
gzipped database:
@example
(defun gzip-read-file-filter ()
(shell-command-on-region (point-min) (point-max)
"gzip -d" t t))
(setq forms-read-file-filter 'gzip-read-file-filter)
@end example
@findex forms-write-file-filter
@item forms-write-file-filter
This variable holds the name of a function to be called before writing
out the contents of the data file.
This can be used to undo the effects of @code{forms-read-file-filter}.
If it is @code{nil}, no function is called. Example:
@example
(defun gzip-write-file-filter ()
(make-variable-buffer-local 'require-final-newline)
(setq require-final-newline nil)
(shell-command-on-region (point-min) (point-max)
"gzip" t t))
(setq forms-write-file-filter 'gzip-write-file-filter)
@end example
@findex forms-new-record-filter
@item forms-new-record-filter
This variable holds a function to be called whenever a new record is created
to supply default values for fields. If it is @code{nil}, no function is
called.
@xref{Modifying Forms Contents}, for details.
@findex forms-modified-record-filter
@item forms-modified-record-filter
This variable holds a function to be called whenever a record is
modified, just before updating the Forms data file. If it is
@code{nil}, no function is called.
@xref{Modifying Forms Contents}, for details.
@findex forms-insert-after
@item forms-insert-after
If this variable is not @code{nil}, new records are created @emph{after} the
current record. Also, upon visiting a file, the initial position will be
at the last record instead of the first one.
@findex forms-check-number-of-fields
@item forms-check-number-of-fields
Normally each record is checked to contain the correct number of fields.
Under certain circumstances, this can be undesirable.
If this variable is set to @code{nil}, these checks will be bypassed.
@end table
@node Format Description
@chapter The Format Description
@vindex forms-format-list
The variable @code{forms-format-list} specifies the format of the data
in the data file, and how to convert the data for display in Forms mode.
Its value must be a list of Forms mode @dfn{formatting elements}, each
of which can be a string, a number, a Lisp list, or a Lisp symbol that
evaluates to one of those. The formatting elements are processed in the
order they appear in the list.
@table @var
@item string
A string formatting element is inserted in the forms ``as is,'' as text
that the user cannot alter.
@item number
A number element selects a field of the record. The contents of this
field are inserted in the display at this point. Field numbers count
starting from 1 (one).
@item list
A formatting element that is a list specifies a function call. This
function is called every time a record is displayed, and its result,
which must be a string, is inserted in the display text. The function
should do nothing but returning a string.
@vindex forms-fields
The function you call can access the fields of the record as a list in
the variable
@code{forms-fields}.
@item symbol
A symbol used as a formatting element should evaluate to a string, number,
or list; the value is interpreted as a formatting element, as described
above.
@end table
If a record does not contain the number of fields as specified in
@code{forms-number-of-fields}, a warning message will be printed. Excess
fields are ignored, missing fields are set to empty.
The control file which displays @file{/etc/passwd} file as demonstrated
in the beginning of this manual might look as follows:
@example
;; @r{This demo visits @file{/etc/passwd}.}
(setq forms-file "/etc/passwd")
(setq forms-number-of-fields 7)
(setq forms-read-only t) ; @r{to make sure}
(setq forms-field-sep ":")
;; @r{Don't allow multi-line fields.}
(setq forms-multi-line nil)
(setq forms-format-list
(list
"====== /etc/passwd ======\n\n"
"User : " 1
" Uid: " 3
" Gid: " 4
"\n\n"
"Name : " 5
"\n\n"
"Home : " 6
"\n\n"
"Shell: " 7
"\n"))
@end example
When you construct the value of @code{forms-format-list}, you should
usually either quote the whole value, like this,
@example
(setq forms-format-list
'(
"====== " forms-file " ======\n\n"
"User : " 1
(make-string 20 ?-)
@dots{}
))
@end example
@noindent
or quote the elements which are lists, like this:
@example
(setq forms-format-list
(list
"====== " forms-file " ======\n\n"
"User : " 1
'(make-string 20 ?-)
@dots{}
))
@end example
Forms mode validates the contents of @code{forms-format-list} when you
visit a database. If there are errors, processing is aborted with an
error message which includes a descriptive text. @xref{Error Messages},
for a detailed list of error messages.
If no @code{forms-format-list} is specified, Forms mode will supply a
default format list. This list contains the name of the file being
visited, and a simple label for each field indicating the field number.
@node Modifying Forms Contents
@chapter Modifying The Forms Contents
If @code{forms-read-only} is @code{nil}, the user can modify the fields
and records of the database.
All normal editing commands are available for editing the contents of the
displayed record. You cannot delete or modify the fixed, explanatory
text that comes from string formatting elements, but you can modify the
actual field contents.
@ignore
@c This is for the Emacs 18 version only.
If the contents of the forms cannot be recognized properly, this is
signaled using a descriptive text. @xref{Error Messages}, for more info.
The cursor will indicate the last part of the forms which was
successfully parsed. It's important to avoid entering field contents
that would cause confusion with the field-separating fixed text.
@end ignore
If the variable @code{forms-modified-record-filter} is non-@code{nil},
it is called as a function before the new data is written to the data
file. The function receives one argument, a vector that contains the
contents of the fields of the record.
The function can refer to fields with @code{aref} and modify them with
@code{aset}. The first field has number 1 (one); thus, element 0 of the
vector is not used. The function should return the same vector it was
passed; the (possibly modified) contents of the vector determine what is
actually written in the file. Here is an example:
@example
(defun my-modified-record-filter (record)
;; @r{Modify second field.}
(aset record 2 (current-time-string))
;; @r{Return the field vector.}
record)
(setq forms-modified-record-filter 'my-modified-record-filter)
@end example
If the variable @code{forms-new-record-filter} is non-@code{nil}, its
value is a function to be called to fill in default values for the
fields of a new record. The function is passed a vector of empty
strings, one for each field; it should return the same vector, with
the desired field values stored in it. Fields are numbered starting
from 1 (one). Example:
@example
(defun my-new-record-filter (fields)
(aset fields 5 (login-name))
(aset fields 1 (current-time-string))
fields)
(setq forms-new-record-filter 'my-new-record-filter)
@end example
@node Miscellaneous
@chapter Miscellaneous
@vindex forms-version
The global variable @code{forms-version} holds the version information
of the Forms mode software.
@findex forms-enumerate
It is very convenient to use symbolic names for the fields in a record.
The function @code{forms-enumerate} provides an elegant means to define
a series of variables whose values are consecutive integers. The
function returns the highest number used, so it can be used to set
@code{forms-number-of-fields} also. For example:
@example
(setq forms-number-of-fields
(forms-enumerate
'(field1 field2 field3 @dots{})))
@end example
This sets @code{field1} to 1, @code{field2} to 2, and so on.
Care has been taken to keep the Forms mode variables buffer-local, so it
is possible to visit multiple files in Forms mode simultaneously, even
if they have different properties.
@findex forms-mode
If you have visited the control file in normal fashion with
@code{find-file} or a like command, you can switch to Forms mode with
the command @code{M-x forms-mode}. If you put @samp{-*- forms -*-} in
the first line of the control file, then visiting it enables Forms mode
automatically. But this makes it hard to edit the control file itself,
so you'd better think twice before using this.
The default format for the data file, using @code{"\t"} to separate
fields and @code{"\^k"} to separate lines within a field, matches the
file format of some popular database programs, e.g. FileMaker. So
@code{forms-mode} can decrease the need to use proprietary software.
@node Error Messages
@chapter Error Messages
This section describes all error messages which can be generated by
forms mode. Error messages that result from parsing the control file
all start with the text @samp{Forms control file error}. Messages
generated while analyzing the definition of @code{forms-format-list}
start with @samp{Forms format error}.
@table @code
@item Forms control file error: `forms-file' has not been set
The variable @code{forms-file} was not set by the control file.
@item Forms control file error: `forms-number-of-fields' has not been set
The variable @code{forms-number-of-fields} was not set by the control
file.
@item Forms control file error: `forms-number-of-fields' must be a number > 0
The variable @code{forms-number-of-fields} did not contain a positive
number.
@item Forms control file error: `forms-field-sep' is not a string
@itemx Forms control file error: `forms-multi-line' must be nil or a one-character string
The variable @code{forms-multi-line} was set to something other than
@code{nil} or a single-character string.
@item Forms control file error: `forms-multi-line' is equal to 'forms-field-sep'
The variable @code{forms-multi-line} may not be equal to
@code{forms-field-sep} for this would make it impossible to distinguish
fields and the lines in the fields.
@item Forms control file error: `forms-new-record-filter' is not a function
@itemx Forms control file error: `forms-modified-record-filter' is not a function
The variable has been set to something else than a function.
@item Forms control file error: `forms-format-list' is not a list
The variable @code{forms-format-list} was not set to a Lisp list
by the control file.
@item Forms format error: field number @var{xx} out of range 1..@var{nn}
A field number was supplied in @code{forms-format-list} with a value of
@var{xx}, which was not greater than zero and smaller than or equal to
the number of fields in the forms, @var{nn}.
@item Forms format error: @var{fun} is not a function
The first element of a list which is an element of
@code{forms-format-list} was not a valid Lisp function.
@item Forms format error: invalid element @var{xx}
A list element was supplied in @code{forms-format-list} which was not a
string, number or list.
@ignore
@c This applies to Emacs 18 only.
@c Error messages generated while a modified form is being analyzed.
@item Parse error: not looking at `...'
When re-parsing the contents of a forms, the text shown could not
be found.
@item Parse error: cannot find `...'
When re-parsing the contents of a forms, the text shown, which
separates two fields, could not be found.
@item Parse error: cannot parse adjacent fields @var{xx} and @var{yy}
Fields @var{xx} and @var{yy} were not separated by text, so could not be
parsed again.
@end ignore
@item Warning: this record has @var{xx} fields instead of @var{yy}
The number of fields in this record in the data file did not match
@code{forms-number-of-fields}. Missing fields will be made empty.
@item Multi-line fields in this record - update refused!
The current record contains newline characters, hence can not be written
back to the data file, for it would corrupt it. Probably you inserted a
newline in a field, while @code{forms-multi-line} was @code{nil}.
@item Field separator occurs in record - update refused!
The current record contains the field separator string inside one of the
fields. It can not be written back to the data file, for it would
corrupt it. Probably you inserted the field separator string in a field.
@item Record number @var{xx} out of range 1..@var{yy}
A jump was made to non-existing record @var{xx}. @var{yy} denotes the
number of records in the file.
@item Stuck at record @var{xx}
An internal error prevented a specific record from being retrieved.
@item No write access to @code{"}@var{file}@code{"}
An attempt was made to enable edit mode on a file that has been write
protected.
@item Search failed: @var{regexp}
The @var{regexp} could not be found in the data file. Forward searching
is done from the current location until the end of the file, then
retrying from the beginning of the file until the current location.
Backward searching is done from the current location until the beginning
of the file, then retrying from the end of the file until the current
location.
@item Wrapped
A search completed successfully after wrapping around.
@item Warning: number of records changed to @var{nn}
Forms mode's idea of the number of records has been adjusted to the
number of records actually present in the data file.
@item Problem saving buffers?
An error occurred while saving the data file buffer. Most likely, Emacs
did ask to confirm deleting the buffer because it had been modified, and
you said `no'.
@end table
@node Long Example
@chapter Long Example
The following example exploits most of the features of Forms mode.
This example is included in the distribution as file @file{forms-d2.el}.
@example
;; demo2 -- demo forms-mode -*- emacs-lisp -*-
;; @r{This sample forms exploit most of the features of forms mode.}
;; @r{Set the name of the data file.}
(setq forms-file "forms-d2.dat")
;; @r{Use @code{forms-enumerate} to set field names and number thereof.}
(setq forms-number-of-fields
(forms-enumerate
'(arch-newsgroup ; 1
arch-volume ; 2
arch-issue ; and ...
arch-article ; ... so
arch-shortname ; ... ... on
arch-parts
arch-from
arch-longname
arch-keywords
arch-date
arch-remarks)))
;; @r{The following functions are used by this form for layout purposes.}
;;
(defun arch-tocol (target &optional fill)
"Produces a string to skip to column TARGET.
Prepends newline if needed.
The optional FILL should be a character, used to fill to the column."
(if (null fill)
(setq fill ? ))
(if (< target (current-column))
(concat "\n" (make-string target fill))
(make-string (- target (current-column)) fill)))
;;
(defun arch-rj (target field &optional fill)
"Produces a string to skip to column TARGET\
minus the width of field FIELD.
Prepends newline if needed.
The optional FILL should be a character,
used to fill to the column."
(arch-tocol (- target (length (nth field forms-fields))) fill))
;; @r{Record filters.}
;;
(defun new-record-filter (the-record)
"Form a new record with some defaults."
(aset the-record arch-from (user-full-name))
(aset the-record arch-date (current-time-string))
the-record) ; return it
(setq forms-new-record-filter 'new-record-filter)
;; @r{The format list.}
(setq forms-format-list
(list
"====== Public Domain Software Archive ======\n\n"
arch-shortname
" - " arch-longname
"\n\n"
"Article: " arch-newsgroup
"/" arch-article
" "
'(arch-tocol 40)
"Issue: " arch-issue
" "
'(arch-rj 73 10)
"Date: " arch-date
"\n\n"
"Submitted by: " arch-from
"\n"
'(arch-tocol 79 ?-)
"\n"
"Keywords: " arch-keywords
"\n\n"
"Parts: " arch-parts
"\n\n====== Remarks ======\n\n"
arch-remarks
))
;; @r{That's all, folks!}
@end example
@node Credits
@chapter Credits
Bug fixes and other useful suggestions were supplied by
Harald Hanche-Olsen (@code{hanche@@imf.unit.no}),
@code{cwitty@@portia.stanford.edu},
Jonathan I. Kamens,
Per Cederqvist (@code{ceder@@signum.se}),
Michael Lipka (@code{lipka@@lip.hanse.de}),
Andy Piper (@code{ajp@@eng.cam.ac.uk}),
Frederic Pierresteguy (@code{F.Pierresteguy@@frcl.bull.fr}),
Ignatios Souvatzis
and Richard Stallman (@code{rms@@gnu.org}).
This documentation was slightly inspired by the documentation of ``rolo
mode'' by Paul Davis at Schlumberger Cambridge Research
(@code{davis%scrsu1%sdr.slb.com@@relay.cs.net}).
None of this would have been possible without GNU Emacs of the Free
Software Foundation. Thanks, Richard!
@node Index
@unnumbered Index
@printindex cp
@contents
@bye

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1995 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@ifclear justgnu
@node Manifesto,, MS-DOS, Top
@unnumbered The GNU Manifesto
@end ifclear
@ifset justgnu
Copyright (C) 1985, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to anyone to make or distribute verbatim copies
of this document, in any medium, provided that the
copyright notice and permission notice are preserved,
and that the distributor grants the recipient permission
for further redistribution as permitted by this notice.
Modified versions may not be made.
@node Top
@top The GNU Manifesto
@end ifset
@quotation
The GNU Manifesto which appears below was written by Richard Stallman at
the beginning of the GNU project, to ask for participation and support.
For the first few years, it was updated in minor ways to account for
developments, but now it seems best to leave it unchanged as most people
have seen it.
Since that time, we have learned about certain common misunderstandings
that different wording could help avoid. Footnotes added in 1993 help
clarify these points.
For up-to-date information about the available GNU software, please see
the latest issue of the GNU's Bulletin. The list is much too long to
include here.
@end quotation
@unnumberedsec What's GNU? Gnu's Not Unix!
GNU, which stands for Gnu's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
away free to everyone who can use it.@footnote{The wording here was
careless. The intention was that nobody would have to pay for
@emph{permission} to use the GNU system. But the words don't make this
clear, and people often interpret them as saying that copies of GNU
should always be distributed at little or no charge. That was never the
intent; later on, the manifesto mentions the possibility of companies
providing the service of distribution for a profit. Subsequently I have
learned to distinguish carefully between ``free'' in the sense of
freedom and ``free'' in the sense of price. Free software is software
that users have the freedom to distribute and change. Some users may
obtain copies at no charge, while others pay to obtain copies---and if
the funds help support improving the software, so much the better. The
important thing is that everyone who has a copy has the freedom to
cooperate with others in using it.} Several other volunteers are helping
me. Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are greatly
needed.
So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands,
a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, a linker, and
around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is nearly completed. A
new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled itself and may be released
this year. An initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to
emulate Unix. When the kernel and compiler are finished, it will be
possible to distribute a GNU system suitable for program development. We
will use @TeX{} as our text formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We
will use the free, portable X window system as well. After this we will
add a portable Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of
other things, plus on-line documentation. We hope to supply, eventually,
everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.
GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to Unix.
We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our experience
with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to have longer
file names, file version numbers, a crashproof file system, file name
completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and perhaps
eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several Lisp programs
and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C and Lisp will be
available as system programming languages. We will try to support UUCP,
MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for communication.
GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with virtual
memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run on. The extra
effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left to someone who wants
to use it on them.
To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word `GNU'
when it is the name of this project.
@unnumberedsec Why I Must Write GNU
I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must
share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to divide
the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share with
others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this way. I
cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software
license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial Intelligence
Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities, but eventually
they had gone too far: I could not remain in an institution where such
things are done for me against my will.
So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have decided to
put together a sufficient body of free software so that I will be able to
get along without any software that is not free. I have resigned from the
AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent me from giving GNU away.
@unnumberedsec Why GNU Will Be Compatible with Unix
Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential features
of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what Unix lacks
without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix would be
convenient for many other people to adopt.
@unnumberedsec How GNU Will Be Available
GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to modify and
redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to restrict its
further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary modifications will not
be allowed. I want to make sure that all versions of GNU remain free.
@unnumberedsec Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help
I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and want to
help.
Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them to
feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel as
comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used essentially
forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The purchaser of software
must choose between friendship and obeying the law. Naturally, many decide
that friendship is more important. But those who believe in law often do
not feel at ease with either choice. They become cynical and think that
programming is just a way of making money.
By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can be
hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as an
example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in sharing.
This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if we use
software that is not free. For about half the programmers I talk to, this
is an important happiness that money cannot replace.
@unnumberedsec How You Can Contribute
I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money.
I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.
One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU will run
on them at an early date. The machines should be complete, ready to use
systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not in need of
sophisticated cooling or power.
I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time work for
GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would be very hard
to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not work together.
But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this problem is absent. A
complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility programs, each of which
is documented separately. Most interface specifications are fixed by Unix
compatibility. If each contributor can write a compatible replacement for
a single Unix utility, and make it work properly in place of the original
on a Unix system, then these utilities will work right when put together.
Even allowing for Murphy to create a few unexpected problems, assembling
these components will be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer
communication and will be worked on by a small, tight group.)
If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full or
part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but I'm
looking for people for whom building community spirit is as important as
making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated people to devote
their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them the need to make a
living in another way.
@unnumberedsec Why All Computer Users Will Benefit
Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system
software free, just like air.@footnote{This is another place I failed to
distinguish carefully between the two different meanings of ``free''.
The statement as it stands is not false---you can get copies of GNU
software at no charge, from your friends or over the net. But it does
suggest the wrong idea.}
This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix license.
It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will
be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the
art.
Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result, a user
who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them himself,
or hire any available programmer or company to make them for him. Users
will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company which owns the
sources and is in sole position to make changes.
Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment by
encouraging all students to study and improve the system code. Harvard's
computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be installed on
the system if its sources were not on public display, and upheld it by
actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very much inspired by
this.
Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software and what
one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.
Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including licensing of
copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through the cumbersome
mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is, which programs) a
person must pay for. And only a police state can force everyone to obey
them. Consider a space station where air must be manufactured at great
cost: charging each breather per liter of air may be fair, but wearing the
metered gas mask all day and all night is intolerable even if everyone can
afford to pay the air bill. And the TV cameras everywhere to see if you
ever take the mask off are outrageous. It's better to support the air
plant with a head tax and chuck the masks.
Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free.
@unnumberedsec Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals
@quotation
``Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't rely
on any support.''
``You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
support.''
@end quotation
If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free without
service, a company to provide just service to people who have obtained GNU
free ought to be profitable.@footnote{Several such companies now exist.}
We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming work
and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on from a
software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough people, the
vendor will tell you to get lost.
If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way is to
have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any available
person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any individual.
With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of consideration for most
businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is still possible for there to
be no available competent person, but this problem cannot be blamed on
distribution arrangements. GNU does not eliminate all the world's problems,
only some of them.
Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need handholding:
doing things for them which they could easily do themselves but don't know
how.
Such services could be provided by companies that sell just hand-holding
and repair service. If it is true that users would rather spend money and
get a product with service, they will also be willing to buy the service
having got the product free. The service companies will compete in quality
and price; users will not be tied to any particular one. Meanwhile, those
of us who don't need the service should be able to use the program without
paying for the service.
@quotation
``You cannot reach many people without advertising,
and you must charge for the program to support that.''
``It's no use advertising a program people can get free.''
@end quotation
There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be used to
inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But it may be
true that one can reach more microcomputer users with advertising. If this
is really so, a business which advertises the service of copying and
mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful enough to pay for its
advertising and more. This way, only the users who benefit from the
advertising pay for it.
On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and such
companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not really
necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates don't
want to let the free market decide this?@footnote{The Free Software
Foundation raises most of its funds from a distribution service,
although it is a charity rather than a company. If @emph{no one}
chooses to obtain copies by ordering from the FSF, it will be unable
to do its work. But this does not mean that proprietary restrictions
are justified to force every user to pay. If a small fraction of all
the users order copies from the FSF, that is sufficient to keep the FSF
afloat. So we ask users to choose to support us in this way. Have you
done your part?}
@quotation
``My company needs a proprietary operating system
to get a competitive edge.''
@end quotation
GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of competition.
You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but neither will your
competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and they will compete in
other areas, while benefiting mutually in this one. If your business is
selling an operating system, you will not like GNU, but that's tough on
you. If your business is something else, GNU can save you from being
pushed into the expensive business of selling operating systems.
I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.@footnote{A group of
computer companies recently pooled funds to support maintenance of the
GNU C Compiler.}
@quotation
``Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?''
@end quotation
If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution. Creativity can
be a social contribution, but only in so far as society is free to use the
results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for creating innovative
programs, by the same token they deserve to be punished if they restrict
the use of these programs.
@quotation
``Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his creativity?''
@end quotation
There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to maximize
one's income, as long as one does not use means that are destructive. But
the means customary in the field of software today are based on
destruction.
Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of it is
destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the ways that
the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth that humanity
derives from the program. When there is a deliberate choice to restrict,
the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.
The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to become
wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become poorer from the
mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or, the Golden Rule.
Since I do not like the consequences that result if everyone hoards
information, I am required to consider it wrong for one to do so.
Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity does not
justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that creativity.
@quotation
``Won't programmers starve?''
@end quotation
I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us cannot
manage to get any money for standing on the street and making faces. But
we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives standing on the
street making faces, and starving. We do something else.
But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's implicit
assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers cannot possibly
be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing.
The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
now.
Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software. It is
the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it were
prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would move to
other bases of organization which are now used less often. There are
always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.
Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it is
now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not considered
an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they now do. If
programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice either. (In
practice they would still make considerably more than that.)
@quotation
``Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is used?''
@end quotation
``Control over the use of one's ideas'' really constitutes control over
other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
difficult.
People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights carefully
(such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to intellectual
property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property rights that the
government recognizes were created by specific acts of legislation for
specific purposes.
For example, the patent system was established to encourage inventors to
disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was to help society
rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life span of 17 years for
a patent was short compared with the rate of advance of the state of the
art. Since patents are an issue only among manufacturers, for whom the
cost and effort of a license agreement are small compared with setting up
production, the patents often do not do much harm. They do not obstruct
most individuals who use patented products.
The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This
practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have survived
even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for the purpose
of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was
invented---books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
press---it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
who read the books.
All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole would
benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we have to ask:
are we really better off granting such license? What kind of act are we
licensing a person to do?
The case of programs today is very different from that of books a hundred
years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is from one
neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source code and
object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is used rather
than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in which a person who
enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole both materially and
spiritually; in which a person should not do so regardless of whether the
law enables him to.
@quotation
``Competition makes things get done better.''
@end quotation
The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this way,
it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it always works
this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered and become
intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other strategies---such as,
attacking other runners. If the runners get into a fist fight, they will
all finish late.
Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners in a
fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem to
object to fights; he just regulates them (``For every ten yards you run,
you can fire one shot''). He really ought to break them up, and penalize
runners for even trying to fight.
@quotation
``Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?''
@end quotation
Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary incentive.
Programming has an irresistible fascination for some people, usually the
people who are best at it. There is no shortage of professional musicians
who keep at it even though they have no hope of making a living that way.
But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate to the
situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become less. So
the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced monetary
incentive? My experience shows that they will.
For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked at the
Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could have had
anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards: fame and
appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a reward in itself.
Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same interesting
work for a lot of money.
What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other than
riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they will
come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly in
competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly if the
high-paying ones are banned.
@quotation
``We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we
stop helping our neighbors, we have to obey.''
@end quotation
You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!
@quotation
``Programmers need to make a living somehow.''
@end quotation
In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways that
programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a program.
This way is customary now because it brings programmers and businessmen the
most money, not because it is the only way to make a living. It is easy to
find other ways if you want to find them. Here are a number of examples.
A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
operating systems onto the new hardware.
The sale of teaching, hand-holding and maintenance services could also
employ programmers.
People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware, asking for
donations from satisfied users, or selling hand-holding services. I have
met people who are already working this way successfully.
Users with related needs can form users' groups, and pay dues. A group
would contract with programming companies to write programs that the
group's members would like to use.
All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:
@quotation
Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay x percent of
the price as a software tax. The government gives this to
an agency like the NSF to spend on software development.
But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to
the project of his own choosing---often, chosen because he hopes to
use the results when it is done. He can take a credit for any amount
of donation up to the total tax he had to pay.
The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of
the tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.
The consequences:
@itemize @bullet
@item
The computer-using community supports software development.
@item
This community decides what level of support is needed.
@item
Users who care which projects their share is spent on
can choose this for themselves.
@end itemize
@end quotation
In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the post-scarcity
world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to make a living.
People will be free to devote themselves to activities that are fun, such
as programming, after spending the necessary ten hours a week on required
tasks such as legislation, family counseling, robot repair and asteroid
prospecting. There will be no need to be able to make a living from
programming.
We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole society
must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this has
translated itself into leisure for workers because much nonproductive
activity is required to accompany productive activity. The main causes of
this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against competition. Free
software will greatly reduce these drains in the area of software
production. We must do this, in order for technical gains in productivity
to translate into less work for us.

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\input texinfo
@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c Copyright (C) 1995 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@setfilename gnus-faq.info
@node Frequently Asked Questions
@section Frequently Asked Questions
This is the Gnus Frequently Asked Questions list.
If you have a Web browser, the official hypertext version is at
@file{http://www.miranova.com/~steve/gnus-faq.html>}, and has
probably been updated since you got this manual.
@menu
* Installation FAQ:: Installation of Gnus.
* Customization FAQ:: Customizing Gnus.
* Reading News FAQ:: News Reading Questions.
* Reading Mail FAQ:: Mail Reading Questions.
@end menu
@node Installation FAQ
@subsection Installation
@itemize @bullet
@item
Q1.1 What is the latest version of Gnus?
The latest (and greatest) version is 5.0.10. You might also run
across something called @emph{September Gnus}. September Gnus
is the alpha version of the next major release of Gnus. It is currently
not stable enough to run unless you are prepared to debug lisp.
@item
Q1.2 Where do I get Gnus?
Any of the following locations:
@itemize @minus
@item
@file{ftp://ftp.ifi.uio.no/pub/emacs/gnus/gnus.tar.gz}
@item
@file{ftp://ftp.pilgrim.umass.edu/pub/misc/ding/}
@item
@file{gopher://gopher.pilgrim.umass.edu/11/pub/misc/ding/}
@item
@file{ftp://aphrodite.nectar.cs.cmu.edu/pub/ding-gnus/}
@item
@file{ftp://ftp.solace.mh.se:/pub/gnu/elisp/}
@end itemize
@item
Q1.3 Which version of Emacs do I need?
At least GNU Emacs 19.28, or XEmacs 19.12 is recommended. GNU Emacs
19.25 has been reported to work under certain circumstances, but it
doesn't @emph{officially} work on it. 19.27 has also been reported to
work. Gnus has been reported to work under OS/2 as well as Unix.
@item
Q1.4 Where is timezone.el?
Upgrade to XEmacs 19.13. In earlier versions of XEmacs this file was
placed with Gnus 4.1.3, but that has been corrected.
@item
Q1.5 When I run Gnus on XEmacs 19.13 I get weird error messages.
You're running an old version of Gnus. Upgrade to at least version
5.0.4.
@item
Q1.6 How do I unsubscribe from the Mailing List?
Send an e-mail message to @file{ding-request@@ifi.uio.no} with the magic word
@emph{unsubscribe} somewhere in it, and you will be removed.
If you are reading the digest version of the list, send an e-mail message
to @*
@file{ding-rn-digests-d-request@@moe.shore.net}
with @emph{unsubscribe} as the subject and you will be removed.
@item
Q1.7 How do I run Gnus on both Emacs and XEmacs?
The basic answer is to byte-compile under XEmacs, and then you can
run under either Emacsen. There is, however, a potential version
problem with easymenu.el with Gnu Emacs prior to 19.29.
Per Abrahamsen <abraham@@dina.kvl.dk> writes :@*
The internal easymenu.el interface changed between 19.28 and 19.29 in
order to make it possible to create byte compiled files that can be
shared between Gnu Emacs and XEmacs. The change is upward
compatible, but not downward compatible.
This gives the following compatibility table:
@example
Compiled with: | Can be used with:
----------------+--------------------------------------
19.28 | 19.28 19.29
19.29 | 19.29 XEmacs
XEmacs | 19.29 XEmacs
@end example
If you have Gnu Emacs 19.28 or earlier, or XEmacs 19.12 or earlier, get
a recent version of auc-menu.el from
@file{ftp://ftp.iesd.auc.dk/pub/emacs-lisp/auc-menu.el}, and install it
under the name easymenu.el somewhere early in your load path.
@item
Q1.8 What resources are available?
There is the newsgroup Gnu.emacs.gnus. Discussion of Gnus 5.x is now
taking place there. There is also a mailing list, send mail to
@file{ding-request@@ifi.uio.no} with the magic word @emph{subscribe}
somewhere in it.
@emph{NOTE:} the traffic on this list is heavy so you may not want to be
on it (unless you use Gnus as your mailer reader, that is). The mailing
list is mainly for developers and testers.
Gnus has a home World Wide Web page at@*
@file{http://www.ifi.uio.no/~larsi/ding.html}.
Gnus has a write up in the X Windows Applications FAQ at@*
@file{http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/~elf/xapps/Q-III.html}.
The Gnus manual is also available on the World Wide Web. The canonical
source is in Norway at@*
@file{http://www.ifi.uio.no/~larsi/ding-manual/gnus_toc.html}.
There are three mirrors in the United States:
@enumerate
@item
@file{http://www.miranova.com/gnus-man/}
@item
@file{http://www.pilgrim.umass.edu/pub/misc/ding/manual/gnus_toc.html}
@item
@file{http://www.rtd.com/~woo/gnus/}
@end enumerate
PostScript copies of the Gnus Reference card are available from@*
@file{ftp://ftp.cs.ualberta.ca/pub/oolog/gnus/}. They are mirrored at@*
@file{ftp://ftp.pilgrim.umass.edu/pub/misc/ding/refcard/} in the
United States. And@*
@file{ftp://marvin.fkphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/pub/gnus/}
in Germany.
An online version of the Gnus FAQ is available at@*
@file{http://www.miranova.com/~steve/gnus-faq.html}. Off-line formats
are also available:@*
ASCII: @file{ftp://ftp.miranova.com/pub/gnus/gnus-faq}@*
PostScript: @file{ftp://ftp.miranova.com/pub/gnus/gnus-faq.ps}.
@item
Q1.9 Gnus hangs on connecting to NNTP server
I am running XEmacs on SunOS and Gnus prints a message about Connecting
to NNTP server and then just hangs.
Ben Wing <wing@@netcom.com> writes :@*
I wonder if you're hitting the infamous @emph{libresolv} problem.
The basic problem is that under SunOS you can compile either
with DNS or NIS name lookup libraries but not both. Try
substituting the IP address and see if that works; if so, you
need to download the sources and recompile.
@item
Q1.10 Mailcrypt 3.4 doesn't work
This problem is verified to still exist in Gnus 5.0.9 and MailCrypt 3.4.
The answer comes from Peter Arius
<arius@@immd2.informatik.uni-erlangen.de>.
I found out that mailcrypt uses
@code{gnus-eval-in-buffer-window}, which is a macro.
It seems as if you have
compiled mailcrypt with plain old GNUS in load path, and the XEmacs byte
compiler has inserted that macro definition into
@file{mc-toplev.elc}.
The solution is to recompile @file{mc-toplev.el} with Gnus 5 in
load-path, and it works fine.
Steve Baur <steve@@miranova.com> adds :@*
The problem also manifests itself if neither GNUS 4 nor Gnus 5 is in the
load-path.
@item
Q1.11 What other packages work with Gnus?
@itemize @minus
@item
Mailcrypt.
Mailcrypt is an Emacs interface to PGP. It works, it installs
without hassle, and integrates very easily. Mailcrypt can be
obtained from@*
@file{ftp://cag.lcs.mit.edu/pub/patl/mailcrypt-3.4.tar.gz}.
@item
Tiny Mime.
Tiny Mime is an Emacs MUA interface to MIME. Installation is
a two-step process unlike most other packages, so you should
be prepared to move the byte-compiled code somewhere. There
are currently two versions of this package available. It can
be obtained from@*
@file{ftp://ftp.jaist.ac.jp/pub/GNU/elisp/}.
Be sure to apply the supplied patch. It works with Gnus through
version 5.0.9. In order for all dependencies to work correctly
the load sequence is as follows:
@lisp
(load "tm-setup")
(load "gnus")
(load "mime-compose")
@end lisp
@emph{NOTE:} Loading the package disables citation highlighting by
default. To get the old behavior back, use the @kbd{M-t} command.
@end itemize
@end itemize
@node Customization FAQ
@subsection Customization
@itemize @bullet
@item
Q2.1 Custom Edit does not work under XEmacs
The custom package has not been ported to XEmacs.
@item
Q2.2 How do I quote messages?
I see lots of messages with quoted material in them. I am wondering
how to have Gnus do it for me.
This is Gnus, so there are a number of ways of doing this. You can use
the built-in commands to do this. There are the @kbd{F} and @kbd{R}
keys from the summary buffer which automatically include the article
being responded to. These commands are also selectable as @i{Followup
and Yank} and @i{Reply and Yank} in the Post menu.
@kbd{C-c C-y} grabs the previous message and prefixes each line with
@code{ail-indentation-spaces} spaces or @code{mail-yank-prefix} if that is
non-nil, unless you have set your own @code{mail-citation-hook}, which will
be called to to do the job.
You might also consider the Supercite package, which allows for pretty
arbitrarily complex quoting styles. Some people love it, some people
hate it.
@item
Q2.3 How can I keep my nnvirtual:* groups sorted?
How can I most efficiently arrange matters so as to keep my nnvirtual:*
(etc) groups at the top of my group selection buffer, whilst keeping
everything sorted in alphabetical order.
If you don't subscribe often to new groups then the easiest way is to
first sort the groups and then manually kill and yank the virtuals
wherever you want them.
@item
Q2.4 Any good suggestions on stuff for an all.SCORE file?
Here is a collection of suggestions from the Gnus mailing list.
@enumerate
@item
From ``Dave Disser'' <disser@@sdd.hp.com>@*
I like blasting anything without lowercase letters. Weeds out most of
the make $$ fast, as well as the lame titles like ``IBM'' and ``HP-UX''
with no further description.
@lisp
(("Subject"
("^\\(Re: \\)?[^a-z]*$" -200 nil R)))
@end lisp
@item
From ``Peter Arius'' <arius@@immd2.informatik.uni-erlangen.de>@*
The most vital entries in my (still young) all.SCORE:
@lisp
(("xref"
("alt.fan.oj-simpson" -1000 nil s))
("subject"
("\\<\\(make\\|fast\\|big\\)\\s-*\\(money\\|cash\\|bucks?\\)\\>" -1000 nil r)
("$$$$" -1000 nil s)))
@end lisp
@item
From ``Per Abrahamsen'' <abraham@@dina.kvl.dk>@*
@lisp
(("subject"
;; CAPS OF THE WORLD, UNITE
("^..[^a-z]+$" -1 nil R)
;; $$$ Make Money $$$ (Try work)
("$" -1 nil s)
;; I'm important! And I have exclamation marks to prove it!
("!" -1 nil s)))
@end lisp
@item
From ``heddy boubaker'' <boubaker@@cenatls.cena.dgac.fr>@*
I would like to contribute with mine.
@lisp
(
(read-only t)
("subject"
;; ALL CAPS SUBJECTS
("^\\([Rr][Ee]: +\\)?[^a-z]+$" -1 nil R)
;; $$$ Make Money $$$
("$$" -10 nil s)
;; Empty subjects are worthless!
("^ *\\([(<]none[>)]\\|(no subject\\( given\\)?)\\)? *$" -10 nil r)
;; Sometimes interesting announces occur!
("ANN?OU?NC\\(E\\|ING\\)" +10 nil r)
;; Some people think they're on mailing lists
("\\(un\\)?sub?scribe" -100 nil r)
;; Stop Micro$oft NOW!!
("\\(m\\(icro\\)?[s$]\\(oft\\|lot\\)?-?\\)?wind?\\(ows\\|aube\\|oze\\)?[- ]*\\('?95\\|NT\\|3[.]1\\|32\\)" -1001 nil r)
;; I've nothing to buy
("\\(for\\|4\\)[- ]*sale" -100 nil r)
;; SELF-DISCIPLINED people
("\\[[^a-z0-9 \t\n][^a-z0-9 \t\n]\\]" +100 nil r)
)
("from"
;; To keep track of posters from my site
(".dgac.fr" +1000 nil s))
("followup"
;; Keep track of answers to my posts
("boubaker" +1000 nil s))
("lines"
;; Some people have really nothing to say!!
(1 -10 nil <=))
(mark -100)
(expunge -1000)
)
@end lisp
@item
From ``Christopher Jones'' <cjones@@au.oracle.com>@*
The sample @file{all.SCORE} files from Per and boubaker could be
augmented with:
@lisp
(("subject"
;; No junk mail please!
("please ignore" -500 nil s)
("test" -500 nil e))
)
@end lisp
@item
From ``Brian Edmonds'' <edmonds@@cs.ubc.ca>@*
Augment any of the above with a fast method of scoring down
excessively cross posted articles.
@lisp
("xref"
;; the more cross posting, the exponentially worse the article
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -1 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -2 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -4 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -8 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -16 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -32 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -64 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -128 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -256 nil r)
("^xref: \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+ \\S-+" -512 nil r))
@end lisp
@end enumerate
@item
Q2.5 What do I use to yank-through when replying?
You should probably reply and followup with @kbd{R} and @kbd{F}, instead
of @kbd{r} and @kbd{f}, which solves your problem. But you could try
something like:
@example
(defconst mail-yank-ignored-headers
"^.*:"
"Delete these headers from old message when it's inserted in a reply.")
@end example
@item
Q2.6 I don't like the default WWW browser
Now when choosing an URL Gnus starts up a W3 buffer, I would like it
to always use Netscape (I don't browse in text-mode ;-).
@enumerate
@item
Activate `Customize...' from the `Help' menu.
@item
Scroll down to the `WWW Browser' field.
@item
Click `mouse-2' on `WWW Browser'.
@item
Select `Netscape' from the pop up menu.
@item
Press `C-c C-c'
@end enumerate
If you are using XEmacs then to specify Netscape do
@lisp
(setq gnus-button-url 'gnus-netscape-open-url)
@end lisp
@item
Q2.7 What, if any, relation is between ``ask-server'' and ``(setq
gnus-read-active-file 'some)''?
In order for Gnus to show you the complete list of newsgroups, it will
either have to either store the list locally, or ask the server to
transmit the list. You enable the first with
@lisp
(setq gnus-save-killed-list t)
@end lisp
and the second with
@lisp
(setq gnus-read-active-file t)
@end lisp
If both are disabled, Gnus will not know what newsgroups exists. There
is no option to get the list by casting a spell.
@item
Q2.8 Moving between groups is slow.
Per Abrahamsen <abraham@@dina.kvl.dk> writes:@*
Do you call @code{define-key} or something like that in one of the
summary mode hooks? This would force Emacs to recalculate the keyboard
shortcuts. Removing the call should speed up @kbd{M-x gnus-summary-mode
RET} by a couple of orders of magnitude. You can use
@lisp
(define-key gnus-summary-mode-map KEY COMMAND)
@end lisp
in your @file{.gnus} instead.
@end itemize
@node Reading News FAQ
@subsection Reading News
@itemize @bullet
@item
Q3.1 How do I convert my kill files to score files?
A kill-to-score translator was written by Ethan Bradford
<ethanb@@ptolemy.astro.washington.edu>. It is available from@*
@file{http://baugi.ifi.uio.no/~larsi/ding-various/gnus-kill-to-score.el}.
@item
Q3.2 My news server has a lot of groups, and killing groups is painfully
slow.
Don't do that then. The best way to get rid of groups that should be
dead is to edit your newsrc directly. This problem will be addressed
in the near future.
@item
Q3.3 How do I use an NNTP server with authentication?
Put the following into your .gnus:
@lisp
(add-hook 'nntp-server-opened-hook 'nntp-send-authinfo)
@end lisp
@item
Q3.4 Not reading the first article.
How do I avoid reading the first article when a group is selected?
@enumerate
@item
Use @kbd{RET} to select the group instead of @kbd{SPC}.
@item
@code{(setq gnus-auto-select first nil)}
@item
Luis Fernandes <elf@@mailhost.ee.ryerson.ca>writes:@*
This is what I use...customize as necessary...
@lisp
;;; Don't auto-select first article if reading sources, or archives or
;;; jobs postings, etc. and just display the summary buffer
(add-hook 'gnus-select-group-hook
(function
(lambda ()
(cond ((string-match "sources" gnus-newsgroup-name)
(setq gnus-auto-select-first nil))
((string-match "jobs" gnus-newsgroup-name)
(setq gnus-auto-select-first nil))
((string-match "comp\\.archives" gnus-newsgroup-name)
(setq gnus-auto-select-first nil))
((string-match "reviews" gnus-newsgroup-name)
(setq gnus-auto-select-first nil))
((string-match "announce" gnus-newsgroup-name)
(setq gnus-auto-select-first nil))
((string-match "binaries" gnus-newsgroup-name)
(setq gnus-auto-select-first nil))
(t
(setq gnus-auto-select-first t))))))
@end lisp
@item
Per Abrahamsen <abraham@@dina.kvl.dk> writes:@*
Another possibility is to create an @file{all.binaries.all.SCORE} file
like this:
@lisp
((local
(gnus-auto-select-first nil)))
@end lisp
and insert
@lisp
(setq gnus-auto-select-first t)
@end lisp
in your @file{.gnus}.
@end enumerate
@item
Q3.5 Why aren't BBDB known posters marked in the summary buffer?
Brian Edmonds <edmonds@@cs.ubc.ca> writes:@*
Due to changes in Gnus 5.0, @file{bbdb-gnus.el} no longer marks known
posters in the summary buffer. An updated version, @file{gnus-bbdb.el}
is available at the locations listed below. This package also supports
autofiling of incoming mail to folders specified in the BBDB. Extensive
instructions are included as comments in the file.
Send mail to @file{majordomo@@edmonds.home.cs.ubc.ca} with the following
line in the body of the message: @emph{get misc gnus-bbdb.el}.
Or get it from the World Wide Web:@*
@file{http://www.cs.ubc.ca/spider/edmonds/gnus-bbdb.el}.
@end itemize
@node Reading Mail FAQ
@subsection Reading Mail
@itemize @bullet
@item
Q4.1 What does the message ``Buffer has changed on disk'' mean in a mail
group?
Your filter program should not deliver mail directly to your folders,
instead it should put the mail into spool files. Gnus will then move
the mail safely from the spool files into the folders. This will
eliminate the problem. Look it up in the manual, in the section
entitled ``Mail & Procmail''.
@item
Q4.2 How do you make articles un-expirable?
I am using nnml to read news and have used
@code{gnus-auto-expirable-newsgroups} to automagically expire articles
in some groups (Gnus being one of them). Sometimes there are
interesting articles in these groups that I want to keep. Is there any
way of explicitly marking an article as un-expirable - that is mark it
as read but not expirable?
Use @kbd{u}, @kbd{!}, @kbd{d} or @kbd{M-u} in the summary buffer. You
just remove the @kbd{E} mark by setting some other mark. It's not
necessary to tick the articles.
@item
Q4.3 How do I delete bogus nnml: groups?
My problem is that I have various mail (nnml) groups generated while
experimenting with Gnus. How do I remove them now? Setting the level to
9 does not help. Also @code{gnus-group-check-bogus-groups} does not
recognize them.
Removing mail groups is tricky at the moment. (It's on the to-do list,
though.) You basically have to kill the groups in Gnus, shut down Gnus,
edit the active file to exclude these groups, and probably remove the
nnml directories that contained these groups as well. Then start Gnus
back up again.
@item
Q4.4 What happened to my new mail groups?
I got new mail, but I have
never seen the groups they should have been placed in.
They are probably there, but as zombies. Press @kbd{A z} to list
zombie groups, and then subscribe to the groups you want with @kbd{u}.
This is all documented quite nicely in the user's manual.
@item
Q4.5 Not scoring mail groups
How do you @emph{totally} turn off scoring in mail groups?
Use an nnbabyl:all.SCORE (or nnmh, or nnml, or whatever) file containing:
@example
((adapt ignore)
(local (gnus-use-scoring nil))
(exclude-files "all.SCORE"))
@end example
@end itemize

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Help, Mark, M-x, Top
@chapter Help
@kindex Help
@cindex help
@cindex self-documentation
@findex help-command
@kindex C-h
@kindex F1
Emacs provides extensive help features accessible through a single
character, @kbd{C-h}. @kbd{C-h} is a prefix key that is used only for
documentation-printing commands. The characters that you can type after
@kbd{C-h} are called @dfn{help options}. One help option is @kbd{C-h};
that is how you ask for help about using @kbd{C-h}. To cancel, type
@kbd{C-g}. The function key @key{F1} is equivalent to @kbd{C-h}.
@kindex C-h C-h
@findex help-for-help
@kbd{C-h C-h} (@code{help-for-help}) displays a list of the possible
help options, each with a brief description. Before you type a help
option, you can use @key{SPC} or @key{DEL} to scroll through the list.
@kbd{C-h} or @key{F1} means ``help'' in various other contexts as
well. For example, in the middle of @code{query-replace}, it describes
the options available for how to operate on the current match. After a
prefix key, it displays a list of the alternatives that can follow the
prefix key. (A few prefix keys don't support @kbd{C-h}, because they
define other meanings for it, but they all support @key{F1}.)
Most help buffers use a special major mode, Help mode, which lets you
scroll conveniently with @key{SPC} and @key{DEL}.
@menu
* Help Summary:: Brief list of all Help commands.
* Key Help:: Asking what a key does in Emacs.
* Name Help:: Asking about a command, variable or function name.
* Apropos:: Asking what pertains to a given topic.
* Library Keywords:: Finding Lisp libraries by keywords (topics).
* Language Help:: Help relating to international language support.
* Help Mode:: Special features of Help mode and Help buffers.
* Misc Help:: Other help commands.
@end menu
@iftex
@node Help Summary
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@node Help Summary
@section Help Summary
@end ifinfo
Here is a summary of the defined help commands.
@table @kbd
@item C-h a @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Display a list of commands whose names match @var{regexp}
(@code{apropos-command}).
@item C-h b
Display a table of all key bindings in effect now, in this order: minor
mode bindings, major mode bindings, and global bindings
(@code{describe-bindings}).
@item C-h c @var{key}
Print the name of the command that @var{key} runs
(@code{describe-key-briefly}). Here @kbd{c} stands for `character'. For more
extensive information on @var{key}, use @kbd{C-h k}.
@item C-h f @var{function} @key{RET}
Display documentation on the Lisp function named @var{function}
(@code{describe-function}). Since commands are Lisp functions,
a command name may be used.
@item C-h h
Display the @file{hello} file, which shows examples of various character
sets.
@item C-h i
Run Info, the program for browsing documentation files (@code{info}).
The complete Emacs manual is available on-line in Info.
@item C-h k @var{key}
Display the name and documentation of the command that @var{key} runs
(@code{describe-key}).
@item C-h l
Display a description of the last 100 characters you typed
(@code{view-lossage}).
@item C-h m
Display documentation of the current major mode (@code{describe-mode}).
@item C-h n
Display documentation of Emacs changes, most recent first
(@code{view-emacs-news}).
@item C-h p
Find packages by topic keyword (@code{finder-by-keyword}).
@item C-h s
Display current contents of the syntax table, plus an explanation of
what they mean (@code{describe-syntax}). @xref{Syntax}.
@item C-h t
Enter the Emacs interactive tutorial (@code{help-with-tutorial}).
@item C-h v @var{var} @key{RET}
Display the documentation of the Lisp variable @var{var}
(@code{describe-variable}).
@item C-h w @var{command} @key{RET}
Print which keys run the command named @var{command} (@code{where-is}).
@item C-h C @var{coding} @key{RET}
Describe coding system @var{coding}
(@code{describe-coding-system}).
@item C-h C @key{RET}
Describe the coding systems currently in use.
@item C-h I @var{method} @key{RET}
Describe an input method (@code{describe-input-method}).
@item C-h L @var{language-env} @key{RET}
Describe information on the character sets, coding systems and input
methods used for language environment @var{language-env}
(@code{describe-language-environment}).
@item C-h C-c
Display the copying conditions for GNU Emacs.
@item C-h C-d
Display information about getting new versions of GNU Emacs.
@item C-h C-f @var{function} @key{RET}
Enter Info and go to the node documenting the Emacs function @var{function}
(@code{Info-goto-emacs-command-node}).
@item C-h C-k @var{key}
Enter Info and go to the node where the key sequence @var{key} is
documented (@code{Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node}).
@item C-h C-p
Display information about the GNU Project.
@item C-h @key{TAB} @var{symbol} @key{RET}
Display the Info documentation on symbol @var{symbol} according to the
programming language you are editing (@code{info-lookup-symbol}).
@end table
@node Key Help
@section Documentation for a Key
@kindex C-h c
@findex describe-key-briefly
The most basic @kbd{C-h} options are @kbd{C-h c}
(@code{describe-key-briefly}) and @w{@kbd{C-h k}} (@code{describe-key}).
@kbd{C-h c @var{key}} prints in the echo area the name of the command
that @var{key} is bound to. For example, @kbd{C-h c C-f} prints
@samp{forward-char}. Since command names are chosen to describe what
the commands do, this is a good way to get a very brief description of
what @var{key} does.
@kindex C-h k
@findex describe-key
@kbd{C-h k @var{key}} is similar but gives more information: it
displays the documentation string of the command as well as its name.
This is too big for the echo area, so a window is used for the display.
@kbd{C-h c} and @kbd{C-h k} work for any sort of key sequences,
including function keys and mouse events.
@node Name Help
@section Help by Command or Variable Name
@kindex C-h f
@findex describe-function
@kbd{C-h f} (@code{describe-function}) reads the name of a Lisp function
using the minibuffer, then displays that function's documentation string
in a window. Since commands are Lisp functions, you can use this to get
the documentation of a command that you know by name. For example,
@example
C-h f auto-fill-mode @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
displays the documentation of @code{auto-fill-mode}. This is the only
way to get the documentation of a command that is not bound to any key
(one which you would normally run using @kbd{M-x}).
@kbd{C-h f} is also useful for Lisp functions that you are planning to
use in a Lisp program. For example, if you have just written the
expression @code{(make-vector len)} and want to check that you are using
@code{make-vector} properly, type @kbd{C-h f make-vector @key{RET}}.
Because @kbd{C-h f} allows all function names, not just command names,
you may find that some of your favorite abbreviations that work in
@kbd{M-x} don't work in @kbd{C-h f}. An abbreviation may be unique
among command names yet fail to be unique when other function names are
allowed.
The function name for @kbd{C-h f} to describe has a default which is
used if you type @key{RET} leaving the minibuffer empty. The default is
the function called by the innermost Lisp expression in the buffer around
point, @emph{provided} that is a valid, defined Lisp function name. For
example, if point is located following the text @samp{(make-vector (car
x)}, the innermost list containing point is the one that starts with
@samp{(make-vector}, so the default is to describe the function
@code{make-vector}.
@kbd{C-h f} is often useful just to verify that you have the right
spelling for the function name. If @kbd{C-h f} mentions a name from the
buffer as the default, that name must be defined as a Lisp function. If
that is all you want to know, just type @kbd{C-g} to cancel the @kbd{C-h
f} command, then go on editing.
@kindex C-h w
@findex where-is
@kbd{C-h w @var{command} @key{RET}} tells you what keys are bound to
@var{command}. It prints a list of the keys in the echo area. If it
says the command is not on any key, you must use @kbd{M-x} to run it.
@kbd{C-h w} runs the command @code{where-is}.
@kbd{C-h v} (@code{describe-variable}) is like @kbd{C-h f} but describes
Lisp variables instead of Lisp functions. Its default is the Lisp symbol
around or before point, but only if that is the name of a known Lisp
variable. @xref{Variables}.@refill
@node Apropos
@section Apropos
@kindex C-h a
@findex apropos-command
@cindex apropos
A more sophisticated sort of question to ask is, ``What are the
commands for working with files?'' To ask this question, type @kbd{C-h
a file @key{RET}}, which displays a list of all command names that
contain @samp{file}, including @code{copy-file}, @code{find-file}, and
so on. With each command name appears a brief description of how to use
the command, and what keys you can currently invoke it with. For
example, it would say that you can invoke @code{find-file} by typing
@kbd{C-x C-f}. The @kbd{a} in @kbd{C-h a} stands for `Apropos';
@kbd{C-h a} runs the command @code{apropos-command}. This command
normally checks only commands (interactive functions); if you specify a
prefix argument, it checks noninteractive functions as well.
Because @kbd{C-h a} looks only for functions whose names contain the
string you specify, you must use ingenuity in choosing the
string. If you are looking for commands for killing backwards and
@kbd{C-h a kill-backwards @key{RET}} doesn't reveal any, don't give up.
Try just @kbd{kill}, or just @kbd{backwards}, or just @kbd{back}. Be
persistent. Also note that you can use a regular expression as the
argument, for more flexibility (@pxref{Regexps}).
Here is a set of arguments to give to @kbd{C-h a} that covers many
classes of Emacs commands, since there are strong conventions for naming
the standard Emacs commands. By giving you a feel for the naming
conventions, this set should also serve to aid you in developing a
technique for picking @code{apropos} strings.
@quotation
char, line, word, sentence, paragraph, region, page, sexp, list, defun,
rect, buffer, frame, window, face, file, dir, register, mode, beginning, end,
forward, backward, next, previous, up, down, search, goto, kill, delete,
mark, insert, yank, fill, indent, case, change, set, what, list, find,
view, describe, default.
@end quotation
@findex apropos-variable
To list all user variables that match a regexp, use the command
@kbd{M-x apropos-variable}. This command shows only user variables and
customization options by default; if you specify a prefix argument, it
checks all variables.
@findex apropos
To list all Lisp symbols that contain a match for a regexp, not just
the ones that are defined as commands, use the command @kbd{M-x apropos}
instead of @kbd{C-h a}. This command does not check key bindings by
default; specify a numeric argument if you want it to check them.
@findex apropos-documentation
The @code{apropos-documentation} command is like @code{apropos} except
that it searches documentation strings as well as symbol names for
matches for the specified regular expression.
@findex apropos-value
The @code{apropos-value} command is like @code{apropos} except that it
searches symbols' values for matches for the specified regular
expression. This command does not check function definitions or
property lists by default; specify a numeric argument if you want it to
check them.
@vindex apropos-do-all
If the variable @code{apropos-do-all} is non-@code{nil}, the commands
above all behave as if they had been given a prefix argument.
If you want more information about a function definition, variable or
symbol property listed in the Apropos buffer, you can click on it with
@kbd{Mouse-2} or move there and type @key{RET}.
@node Library Keywords
@section Keyword Search for Lisp Libraries
@kindex C-h p
@findex finder-by-keyword
The @kbd{C-h p} command lets you search the standard Emacs Lisp
libraries by topic keywords. Here is a partial list of keywords you can
use:
@display
abbrev --- abbreviation handling, typing shortcuts, macros.
bib --- support for the bibliography processor @code{bib}.
c --- C and C++ language support.
calendar --- calendar and time management support.
comm --- communications, networking, remote access to files.
data --- support for editing files of data.
docs --- support for Emacs documentation.
emulations --- emulations of other editors.
extensions --- Emacs Lisp language extensions.
faces --- support for using faces (fonts and colors; @pxref{Faces}).
frames --- support for Emacs frames and window systems.
games --- games, jokes and amusements.
hardware --- support for interfacing with exotic hardware.
help --- support for on-line help systems.
hypermedia --- support for links within text, or other media types.
i18n --- internationalization and alternate character-set support.
internal --- code for Emacs internals, build process, defaults.
languages --- specialized modes for editing programming languages.
lisp --- support for using Lisp (including Emacs Lisp).
local --- libraries local to your site.
maint --- maintenance aids for the Emacs development group.
mail --- modes for electronic-mail handling.
matching --- searching and matching.
news --- support for netnews reading and posting.
non-text --- support for editing files that are not ordinary text.
oop --- support for object-oriented programming.
outlines --- hierarchical outlining.
processes --- process, subshell, compilation, and job control support.
terminals --- support for terminal types.
tex --- support for the @TeX{} formatter.
tools --- programming tools.
unix --- front-ends/assistants for, or emulators of, Unix features.
vms --- support code for VMS.
wp --- word processing.
@end display
@node Language Help
@section Help for International Language Support
You can use the command @kbd{C-h L}
(@code{describe-language-environment}) to find out the support for a
specific language environment. @xref{Language Environments}. This
tells you which languages this language environment is useful for, and
lists the character sets, coding systems, and input methods that go with
it. It also shows some sample text to illustrate scripts.
The command @kbd{C-h h} (@code{view-hello-file}) displays the file
@file{etc/HELLO}, which shows how to say ``hello'' in many languages.
The command @kbd{C-h I} (@code{describe-input-method}) describes
information about input methods---either a specified input method, or by
default the input method in use. @xref{Input Methods}.
The command @kbd{C-h C} (@code{describe-coding-system}) describes
information about coding systems---either a specified coding system, or
the ones currently in use. @xref{Coding Systems}.
@node Help Mode
@section Help Mode Commands
Help buffers provide the commands of View mode (@pxref{Misc File
Ops}), plus a few special commands of their own.
@table @kbd
@item @key{SPC}
Scroll forward.
@item @key{DEL}
Scroll backward.
@item @key{RET}
Follow a cross reference at point.
@item @key{TAB}
Move point forward to the next cross reference.
@item S-@key{TAB}
Move point back to the previous cross reference.
@item Mouse-2
Follow a cross reference that you click on.
@end table
When a command name (@pxref{M-x,, Running Commands by Name}) or
variable name (@pxref{Variables}) appears in the documentation, it
normally appears inside paired single-quotes. You can click on the name
with @kbd{Mouse-2}, or move point there and type @key{RET}, to view the
documentation of that command or variable. Use @kbd{C-c C-b} to retrace
your steps.
@kindex @key{TAB} @r{(Help mode)}
@findex help-next-ref
@kindex S-@key{TAB} @r{(Help mode)}
@findex help-previous-ref
There are convenient commands for moving point to cross references in
the help text. @key{TAB} (@code{help-next-ref}) moves point down to the
next cross reference. Use @kbd{S-@key{TAB}} to move point up to the
previous cross reference (@code{help-previous-ref}).
@node Misc Help
@section Other Help Commands
@kindex C-h i
@findex info
@cindex Info
@cindex manuals, on-line
@cindex on-line manuals
@kbd{C-h i} (@code{info}) runs the Info program, which is used for
browsing through structured documentation files. The entire Emacs manual
is available within Info. Eventually all the documentation of the GNU
system will be available. Type @kbd{h} after entering Info to run
a tutorial on using Info.
If you specify a numeric argument, @kbd{C-h i} prompts for the name of
a documentation file. This way, you can browse a file which doesn't
have an entry in the top-level Info menu. It is also handy when you
need to get to the documentation quickly, and you know the exact name of
the file.
@kindex C-h C-f
@kindex C-h C-k
@findex Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node
@findex Info-goto-emacs-command-node
There are two special help commands for accessing Emacs documentation
through Info. @kbd{C-h C-f @var{function} @key{RET}} enters Info and
goes straight to the documentation of the Emacs function
@var{function}. @kbd{C-h C-k @var{key}} enters Info and goes straight
to the documentation of the key @var{key}. These two keys run the
commands @code{Info-goto-emacs-command-node} and
@code{Info-goto-emacs-key-command-node}.
When editing a program, if you have an Info version of the manual for
the programming language, you can use the command @kbd{C-h C-i} to refer
to the manual documentation for a symbol (keyword, function or
variable). The details of how this command works depend on the major
mode.
@kindex C-h l
@findex view-lossage
If something surprising happens, and you are not sure what commands you
typed, use @kbd{C-h l} (@code{view-lossage}). @kbd{C-h l} prints the last
100 command characters you typed in. If you see commands that you don't
know, you can use @kbd{C-h c} to find out what they do.
@kindex C-h m
@findex describe-mode
Emacs has numerous major modes, each of which redefines a few keys and
makes a few other changes in how editing works. @kbd{C-h m}
(@code{describe-mode}) prints documentation on the current major mode,
which normally describes all the commands that are changed in this
mode.
@kindex C-h b
@findex describe-bindings
@kbd{C-h b} (@code{describe-bindings}) and @kbd{C-h s}
(@code{describe-syntax}) present other information about the current
Emacs mode. @kbd{C-h b} displays a list of all the key bindings now in
effect; the local bindings defined by the current minor modes first,
then the local bindings defined by the current major mode, and finally
the global bindings (@pxref{Key Bindings}). @kbd{C-h s} displays the
contents of the syntax table, with explanations of each character's
syntax (@pxref{Syntax}).
You can get a similar list for a particular prefix key by typing
@kbd{C-h} after the prefix key. (There are a few prefix keys for which
this does not work---those that provide their own bindings for
@kbd{C-h}. One of these is @key{ESC}, because @kbd{@key{ESC} C-h} is
actually @kbd{C-M-h}, which marks a defun.)
@kindex C-h F
@findex view-emacs-FAQ
@kindex C-h n
@findex view-emacs-news
@kindex C-h C-c
@findex describe-copying
@kindex C-h C-d
@findex describe-distribution
@kindex C-h C-w
@findex describe-no-warranty
@kindex C-h C-p
@findex describe-project
The other @kbd{C-h} options display various files of useful
information. @kbd{C-h C-w} displays the full details on the complete
absence of warranty for GNU Emacs. @kbd{C-h n} (@code{view-emacs-news})
displays the file @file{emacs/etc/NEWS}, which contains documentation on
Emacs changes arranged chronologically. @kbd{C-h F}
(@code{view-emacs-FAQ}) displays the Emacs frequently-answered-questions
list. @kbd{C-h t} (@code{help-with-tutorial}) displays the
learn-by-doing Emacs tutorial. @kbd{C-h C-c} (@code{describe-copying})
displays the file @file{emacs/etc/COPYING}, which tells you the
conditions you must obey in distributing copies of Emacs. @kbd{C-h C-d}
(@code{describe-distribution}) displays the file
@file{emacs/etc/DISTRIB}, which tells you how you can order a copy of
the latest version of Emacs. @kbd{C-h C-p} (@code{describe-project})
displays general information about the GNU Project.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Indentation, Text, Major Modes, Top
@chapter Indentation
@cindex indentation
@cindex columns (indentation)
This chapter describes the Emacs commands that add, remove, or
adjust indentation.
@c WideCommands
@table @kbd
@item @key{TAB}
Indent current line ``appropriately'' in a mode-dependent fashion.
@item @kbd{C-j}
Perform @key{RET} followed by @key{TAB} (@code{newline-and-indent}).
@item M-^
Merge two lines (@code{delete-indentation}). This would cancel out
the effect of @kbd{C-j}.
@item C-M-o
Split line at point; text on the line after point becomes a new line
indented to the same column that it now starts in (@code{split-line}).
@item M-m
Move (forward or back) to the first nonblank character on the current
line (@code{back-to-indentation}).
@item C-M-\
Indent several lines to same column (@code{indent-region}).
@item C-x @key{TAB}
Shift block of lines rigidly right or left (@code{indent-rigidly}).
@item M-i
Indent from point to the next prespecified tab stop column
(@code{tab-to-tab-stop}).
@item M-x indent-relative
Indent from point to under an indentation point in the previous line.
@end table
Most programming languages have some indentation convention. For Lisp
code, lines are indented according to their nesting in parentheses. The
same general idea is used for C code, though many details are different.
@kindex TAB
Whatever the language, to indent a line, use the @key{TAB} command. Each
major mode defines this command to perform the sort of indentation
appropriate for the particular language. In Lisp mode, @key{TAB} aligns
the line according to its depth in parentheses. No matter where in the
line you are when you type @key{TAB}, it aligns the line as a whole. In C
mode, @key{TAB} implements a subtle and sophisticated indentation style that
knows about many aspects of C syntax.
In Text mode, @key{TAB} runs the command @code{tab-to-tab-stop}, which
indents to the next tab stop column. You can set the tab stops with
@kbd{M-x edit-tab-stops}.
@menu
* Indentation Commands:: Various commands and techniques for indentation.
* Tab Stops:: You can set arbitrary "tab stops" and then
indent to the next tab stop when you want to.
* Just Spaces:: You can request indentation using just spaces.
@end menu
@node Indentation Commands, Tab Stops, Indentation, Indentation
@section Indentation Commands and Techniques
@kindex M-m
@findex back-to-indentation
To move over the indentation on a line, do @kbd{M-m}
(@code{back-to-indentation}). This command, given anywhere on a line,
positions point at the first nonblank character on the line.
To insert an indented line before the current line, do @kbd{C-a C-o
@key{TAB}}. To make an indented line after the current line, use
@kbd{C-e C-j}.
If you just want to insert a tab character in the buffer, you can type
@kbd{C-q @key{TAB}}.
@kindex C-M-o
@findex split-line
@kbd{C-M-o} (@code{split-line}) moves the text from point to the end of
the line vertically down, so that the current line becomes two lines.
@kbd{C-M-o} first moves point forward over any spaces and tabs. Then it
inserts after point a newline and enough indentation to reach the same
column point is on. Point remains before the inserted newline; in this
regard, @kbd{C-M-o} resembles @kbd{C-o}.
@kindex M-^
@findex delete-indentation
To join two lines cleanly, use the @kbd{M-^}
(@code{delete-indentation}) command. It deletes the indentation at the
front of the current line, and the line boundary as well, replacing them
with a single space. As a special case (useful for Lisp code) the
single space is omitted if the characters to be joined are consecutive
open parentheses or closing parentheses, or if the junction follows
another newline. To delete just the indentation of a line, go to the
beginning of the line and use @kbd{M-\}
(@code{delete-horizontal-space}), which deletes all spaces and tabs
around the cursor.
If you have a fill prefix, @kbd{M-^} deletes the fill prefix if it
appears after the newline that is deleted. @xref{Fill Prefix}.
@kindex C-M-\
@kindex C-x TAB
@findex indent-region
@findex indent-rigidly
There are also commands for changing the indentation of several lines
at once. @kbd{C-M-\} (@code{indent-region}) applies to all the lines
that begin in the region; it indents each line in the ``usual'' way, as
if you had typed @key{TAB} at the beginning of the line. A numeric
argument specifies the column to indent to, and each line is shifted
left or right so that its first nonblank character appears in that
column. @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} (@code{indent-rigidly}) moves all of the
lines in the region right by its argument (left, for negative
arguments). The whole group of lines moves rigidly sideways, which is
how the command gets its name.@refill
@findex indent-relative
@kbd{M-x indent-relative} indents at point based on the previous line
(actually, the last nonempty line). It inserts whitespace at point, moving
point, until it is underneath an indentation point in the previous line.
An indentation point is the end of a sequence of whitespace or the end of
the line. If point is farther right than any indentation point in the
previous line, the whitespace before point is deleted and the first
indentation point then applicable is used. If no indentation point is
applicable even then, @code{indent-relative} runs @code{tab-to-tab-stop}
@ifinfo
(@pxref{Tab Stops}).
@end ifinfo
@iftex
(see next section).
@end iftex
@code{indent-relative} is the definition of @key{TAB} in Indented Text
mode. @xref{Text}.
@xref{Format Indentation}, for another way of specifying the
indentation for part of your text.
@node Tab Stops, Just Spaces, Indentation Commands, Indentation
@section Tab Stops
@cindex tab stops
@cindex using tab stops in making tables
@cindex tables, indentation for
@kindex M-i
@findex tab-to-tab-stop
For typing in tables, you can use Text mode's definition of @key{TAB},
@code{tab-to-tab-stop}. This command inserts indentation before point,
enough to reach the next tab stop column. If you are not in Text mode,
this command can be found on the key @kbd{M-i}.
@findex edit-tab-stops
@findex edit-tab-stops-note-changes
@kindex C-c C-c @r{(Edit Tab Stops)}
@vindex tab-stop-list
You can specify the tab stops used by @kbd{M-i}. They are stored in a
variable called @code{tab-stop-list}, as a list of column-numbers in
increasing order.
The convenient way to set the tab stops is with @kbd{M-x
edit-tab-stops}, which creates and selects a buffer containing a
description of the tab stop settings. You can edit this buffer to
specify different tab stops, and then type @kbd{C-c C-c} to make those
new tab stops take effect. @code{edit-tab-stops} records which buffer
was current when you invoked it, and stores the tab stops back in that
buffer; normally all buffers share the same tab stops and changing them
in one buffer affects all, but if you happen to make
@code{tab-stop-list} local in one buffer then @code{edit-tab-stops} in
that buffer will edit the local settings.
Here is what the text representing the tab stops looks like for ordinary
tab stops every eight columns.
@example
: : : : : :
0 1 2 3 4
0123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
To install changes, type C-c C-c
@end example
The first line contains a colon at each tab stop. The remaining lines
are present just to help you see where the colons are and know what to do.
Note that the tab stops that control @code{tab-to-tab-stop} have nothing
to do with displaying tab characters in the buffer. @xref{Display Vars},
for more information on that.
@node Just Spaces,, Tab Stops, Indentation
@section Tabs vs. Spaces
@vindex indent-tabs-mode
Emacs normally uses both tabs and spaces to indent lines. If you prefer,
all indentation can be made from spaces only. To request this, set
@code{indent-tabs-mode} to @code{nil}. This is a per-buffer variable;
altering the variable affects only the current buffer, but there is a
default value which you can change as well. @xref{Locals}.
@findex tabify
@findex untabify
There are also commands to convert tabs to spaces or vice versa, always
preserving the columns of all nonblank text. @kbd{M-x tabify} scans the
region for sequences of spaces, and converts sequences of at least three
spaces to tabs if that can be done without changing indentation. @kbd{M-x
untabify} changes all tabs in the region to appropriate numbers of spaces.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@iftex
@chapter Killing and Moving Text
@dfn{Killing} means erasing text and copying it into the @dfn{kill
ring}, from which it can be retrieved by @dfn{yanking} it. Some systems
use the terms ``cutting'' and ``pasting'' for these operations.
The commonest way of moving or copying text within Emacs is to kill it
and later yank it elsewhere in one or more places. This is very safe
because Emacs remembers several recent kills, not just the last one. It
is versatile, because the many commands for killing syntactic units can
also be used for moving those units. But there are other ways of
copying text for special purposes.
Emacs has only one kill ring for all buffers, so you can kill text in
one buffer and yank it in another buffer.
@end iftex
@node Killing, Yanking, Mark, Top
@section Deletion and Killing
@cindex killing text
@cindex cutting text
@cindex deletion
Most commands which erase text from the buffer save it in the kill
ring so that you can move or copy it to other parts of the buffer.
These commands are known as @dfn{kill} commands. The rest of the
commands that erase text do not save it in the kill ring; they are known
as @dfn{delete} commands. (This distinction is made only for erasure of
text in the buffer.) If you do a kill or delete command by mistake, you
can use the @kbd{C-x u} (@code{undo}) command to undo it
(@pxref{Undo}).
The delete commands include @kbd{C-d} (@code{delete-char}) and
@key{DEL} (@code{delete-backward-char}), which delete only one character at
a time, and those commands that delete only spaces or newlines. Commands
that can destroy significant amounts of nontrivial data generally kill.
The commands' names and individual descriptions use the words @samp{kill}
and @samp{delete} to say which they do.
@menu
* Deletion:: Commands for deleting small amounts of text and
blank areas.
* Killing by Lines:: How to kill entire lines of text at one time.
* Other Kill Commands:: Commands to kill large regions of text and
syntactic units such as words and sentences.
@end menu
@node Deletion
@subsection Deletion
@c ??? Should be backward-delete-char
@findex delete-backward-char
@findex delete-char
@kindex DEL
@kindex C-d
@table @kbd
@item C-d
Delete next character (@code{delete-char}).
@item @key{DEL}
Delete previous character (@code{delete-backward-char}).
@item M-\
Delete spaces and tabs around point (@code{delete-horizontal-space}).
@item M-@key{SPC}
Delete spaces and tabs around point, leaving one space
(@code{just-one-space}).
@item C-x C-o
Delete blank lines around the current line (@code{delete-blank-lines}).
@item M-^
Join two lines by deleting the intervening newline, along with any
indentation following it (@code{delete-indentation}).
@end table
The most basic delete commands are @kbd{C-d} (@code{delete-char}) and
@key{DEL} (@code{delete-backward-char}). @kbd{C-d} deletes the
character after point, the one the cursor is ``on top of.'' This
doesn't move point. @key{DEL} deletes the character before the cursor,
and moves point back. You can delete newlines like any other characters
in the buffer; deleting a newline joins two lines. Actually, @kbd{C-d}
and @key{DEL} aren't always delete commands; when given arguments, they
kill instead, since they can erase more than one character this way.
@kindex M-\
@findex delete-horizontal-space
@kindex M-SPC
@findex just-one-space
The other delete commands are those which delete only whitespace
characters: spaces, tabs and newlines. @kbd{M-\}
(@code{delete-horizontal-space}) deletes all the spaces and tab
characters before and after point. @kbd{M-@key{SPC}}
(@code{just-one-space}) does likewise but leaves a single space after
point, regardless of the number of spaces that existed previously (even
zero).
@kbd{C-x C-o} (@code{delete-blank-lines}) deletes all blank lines
after the current line. If the current line is blank, it deletes all
blank lines preceding the current line as well (leaving one blank line,
the current line).
@kbd{M-^} (@code{delete-indentation}) joins the current line and the
previous line, by deleting a newline and all surrounding spaces, usually
leaving a single space. @xref{Indentation,M-^}.
@node Killing by Lines
@subsection Killing by Lines
@table @kbd
@item C-k
Kill rest of line or one or more lines (@code{kill-line}).
@end table
@kindex C-k
@findex kill-line
The simplest kill command is @kbd{C-k}. If given at the beginning of
a line, it kills all the text on the line, leaving it blank. When used
on a blank line, it kills the whole line including its newline. To kill
an entire non-blank line, go to the beginning and type @kbd{C-k} twice.
More generally, @kbd{C-k} kills from point up to the end of the line,
unless it is at the end of a line. In that case it kills the newline
following point, thus merging the next line into the current one.
Spaces and tabs that you can't see at the end of the line are ignored
when deciding which case applies, so if point appears to be at the end
of the line, you can be sure @kbd{C-k} will kill the newline.
When @kbd{C-k} is given a positive argument, it kills that many lines
and the newlines that follow them (however, text on the current line
before point is spared). With a negative argument @minus{}@var{n}, it
kills @var{n} lines preceding the current line (together with the text
on the current line before point). Thus, @kbd{C-u - 2 C-k} at the front
of a line kills the two previous lines.
@kbd{C-k} with an argument of zero kills the text before point on the
current line.
@vindex kill-whole-line
If the variable @code{kill-whole-line} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-k} at
the very beginning of a line kills the entire line including the
following newline. This variable is normally @code{nil}.
@node Other Kill Commands
@subsection Other Kill Commands
@findex kill-region
@kindex C-w
@c DoubleWideCommands
@table @kbd
@item C-w
Kill region (from point to the mark) (@code{kill-region}).
@item M-d
Kill word (@code{kill-word}). @xref{Words}.
@item M-@key{DEL}
Kill word backwards (@code{backward-kill-word}).
@item C-x @key{DEL}
Kill back to beginning of sentence (@code{backward-kill-sentence}).
@xref{Sentences}.
@item M-k
Kill to end of sentence (@code{kill-sentence}).
@item C-M-k
Kill sexp (@code{kill-sexp}). @xref{Lists}.
@item M-z @var{char}
Kill through the next occurrence of @var{char} (@code{zap-to-char}).
@end table
A kill command which is very general is @kbd{C-w}
(@code{kill-region}), which kills everything between point and the
mark. With this command, you can kill any contiguous sequence of
characters, if you first set the region around them.
@kindex M-z
@findex zap-to-char
A convenient way of killing is combined with searching: @kbd{M-z}
(@code{zap-to-char}) reads a character and kills from point up to (and
including) the next occurrence of that character in the buffer. A
numeric argument acts as a repeat count. A negative argument means to
search backward and kill text before point.
Other syntactic units can be killed: words, with @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} and
@kbd{M-d} (@pxref{Words}); sexps, with @kbd{C-M-k} (@pxref{Lists}); and
sentences, with @kbd{C-x @key{DEL}} and @kbd{M-k}
(@pxref{Sentences}).@refill
You can use kill commands in read-only buffers. They don't actually
change the buffer, and they beep to warn you of that, but they do copy
the text you tried to kill into the kill ring, so you can yank it into
other buffers. Most of the kill commands move point across the text
they copy in this way, so that successive kill commands build up a
single kill ring entry as usual.
@node Yanking, Accumulating Text, Killing, Top
@section Yanking
@cindex moving text
@cindex copying text
@cindex kill ring
@cindex yanking
@cindex pasting
@dfn{Yanking} means reinserting text previously killed. This is what
some systems call ``pasting.'' The usual way to move or copy text is to
kill it and then yank it elsewhere one or more times.
@table @kbd
@item C-y
Yank last killed text (@code{yank}).
@item M-y
Replace text just yanked with an earlier batch of killed text
(@code{yank-pop}).
@item M-w
Save region as last killed text without actually killing it
(@code{kill-ring-save}).
@item C-M-w
Append next kill to last batch of killed text (@code{append-next-kill}).
@end table
@menu
* Kill Ring:: Where killed text is stored. Basic yanking.
* Appending Kills:: Several kills in a row all yank together.
* Earlier Kills:: Yanking something killed some time ago.
@end menu
@node Kill Ring
@subsection The Kill Ring
All killed text is recorded in the @dfn{kill ring}, a list of blocks of
text that have been killed. There is only one kill ring, shared by all
buffers, so you can kill text in one buffer and yank it in another buffer.
This is the usual way to move text from one file to another.
(@xref{Accumulating Text}, for some other ways.)
@kindex C-y
@findex yank
The command @kbd{C-y} (@code{yank}) reinserts the text of the most recent
kill. It leaves the cursor at the end of the text. It sets the mark at
the beginning of the text. @xref{Mark}.
@kbd{C-u C-y} leaves the cursor in front of the text, and sets the
mark after it. This happens only if the argument is specified with just
a @kbd{C-u}, precisely. Any other sort of argument, including @kbd{C-u}
and digits, specifies an earlier kill to yank (@pxref{Earlier Kills}).
@kindex M-w
@findex kill-ring-save
To copy a block of text, you can use @kbd{M-w}
(@code{kill-ring-save}), which copies the region into the kill ring
without removing it from the buffer. This is approximately equivalent
to @kbd{C-w} followed by @kbd{C-x u}, except that @kbd{M-w} does not
alter the undo history and does not temporarily change the screen.
@node Appending Kills
@subsection Appending Kills
@cindex appending kills in the ring
@cindex television
Normally, each kill command pushes a new entry onto the kill ring.
However, two or more kill commands in a row combine their text into a
single entry, so that a single @kbd{C-y} yanks all the text as a unit,
just as it was before it was killed.
Thus, if you want to yank text as a unit, you need not kill all of it
with one command; you can keep killing line after line, or word after
word, until you have killed it all, and you can still get it all back at
once.
Commands that kill forward from point add onto the end of the previous
killed text. Commands that kill backward from point add text onto the
beginning. This way, any sequence of mixed forward and backward kill
commands puts all the killed text into one entry without rearrangement.
Numeric arguments do not break the sequence of appending kills. For
example, suppose the buffer contains this text:
@example
This is a line @point{}of sample text.
@end example
@noindent
with point shown by @point{}. If you type @kbd{M-d M-@key{DEL} M-d
M-@key{DEL}}, killing alternately forward and backward, you end up with
@samp{a line of sample} as one entry in the kill ring, and @samp{This
is@ @ text.} in the buffer. (Note the double space, which you can clean
up with @kbd{M-@key{SPC}} or @kbd{M-q}.)
Another way to kill the same text is to move back two words with
@kbd{M-b M-b}, then kill all four words forward with @kbd{C-u M-d}.
This produces exactly the same results in the buffer and in the kill
ring. @kbd{M-f M-f C-u M-@key{DEL}} kills the same text, all going
backward; once again, the result is the same. The text in the kill ring
entry always has the same order that it had in the buffer before you
killed it.
@kindex C-M-w
@findex append-next-kill
If a kill command is separated from the last kill command by other
commands (not just numeric arguments), it starts a new entry on the kill
ring. But you can force it to append by first typing the command
@kbd{C-M-w} (@code{append-next-kill}) right before it. The @kbd{C-M-w}
tells the following command, if it is a kill command, to append the text
it kills to the last killed text, instead of starting a new entry. With
@kbd{C-M-w}, you can kill several separated pieces of text and
accumulate them to be yanked back in one place.@refill
A kill command following @kbd{M-w} does not append to the text that
@kbd{M-w} copied into the kill ring.
@node Earlier Kills
@subsection Yanking Earlier Kills
@cindex yanking previous kills
@kindex M-y
@findex yank-pop
To recover killed text that is no longer the most recent kill, use the
@kbd{M-y} command (@code{yank-pop}). It takes the text previously
yanked and replaces it with the text from an earlier kill. So, to
recover the text of the next-to-the-last kill, first use @kbd{C-y} to
yank the last kill, and then use @kbd{M-y} to replace it with the
previous kill. @kbd{M-y} is allowed only after a @kbd{C-y} or another
@kbd{M-y}.
You can understand @kbd{M-y} in terms of a ``last yank'' pointer which
points at an entry in the kill ring. Each time you kill, the ``last
yank'' pointer moves to the newly made entry at the front of the ring.
@kbd{C-y} yanks the entry which the ``last yank'' pointer points to.
@kbd{M-y} moves the ``last yank'' pointer to a different entry, and the
text in the buffer changes to match. Enough @kbd{M-y} commands can move
the pointer to any entry in the ring, so you can get any entry into the
buffer. Eventually the pointer reaches the end of the ring; the next
@kbd{M-y} moves it to the first entry again.
@kbd{M-y} moves the ``last yank'' pointer around the ring, but it does
not change the order of the entries in the ring, which always runs from
the most recent kill at the front to the oldest one still remembered.
@kbd{M-y} can take a numeric argument, which tells it how many entries
to advance the ``last yank'' pointer by. A negative argument moves the
pointer toward the front of the ring; from the front of the ring, it
moves ``around'' to the last entry and continues forward from there.
Once the text you are looking for is brought into the buffer, you can
stop doing @kbd{M-y} commands and it will stay there. It's just a copy
of the kill ring entry, so editing it in the buffer does not change
what's in the ring. As long as no new killing is done, the ``last
yank'' pointer remains at the same place in the kill ring, so repeating
@kbd{C-y} will yank another copy of the same previous kill.
If you know how many @kbd{M-y} commands it would take to find the text
you want, you can yank that text in one step using @kbd{C-y} with a
numeric argument. @kbd{C-y} with an argument restores the text the
specified number of entries back in the kill ring. Thus, @kbd{C-u 2
C-y} gets the next-to-the-last block of killed text. It is equivalent
to @kbd{C-y M-y}. @kbd{C-y} with a numeric argument starts counting
from the ``last yank'' pointer, and sets the ``last yank'' pointer to
the entry that it yanks.
@vindex kill-ring-max
The length of the kill ring is controlled by the variable
@code{kill-ring-max}; no more than that many blocks of killed text are
saved.
@vindex kill-ring
The actual contents of the kill ring are stored in a variable named
@code{kill-ring}; you can view the entire contents of the kill ring with
the command @kbd{C-h v kill-ring}.
@node Accumulating Text, Rectangles, Yanking, Top
@section Accumulating Text
@findex append-to-buffer
@findex prepend-to-buffer
@findex copy-to-buffer
@findex append-to-file
@cindex accumulating scattered text
Usually we copy or move text by killing it and yanking it, but there
are other methods convenient for copying one block of text in many
places, or for copying many scattered blocks of text into one place. To
copy one block to many places, store it in a register
(@pxref{Registers}). Here we describe the commands to accumulate
scattered pieces of text into a buffer or into a file.
@table @kbd
@item M-x append-to-buffer
Append region to contents of specified buffer.
@item M-x prepend-to-buffer
Prepend region to contents of specified buffer.
@item M-x copy-to-buffer
Copy region into specified buffer, deleting that buffer's old contents.
@item M-x insert-buffer
Insert contents of specified buffer into current buffer at point.
@item M-x append-to-file
Append region to contents of specified file, at the end.
@end table
To accumulate text into a buffer, use @kbd{M-x append-to-buffer}.
This reads a buffer name, then inserts a copy of the region into the
buffer specified. If you specify a nonexistent buffer,
@code{append-to-buffer} creates the buffer. The text is inserted
wherever point is in that buffer. If you have been using the buffer for
editing, the copied text goes into the middle of the text of the buffer,
wherever point happens to be in it.
Point in that buffer is left at the end of the copied text, so
successive uses of @code{append-to-buffer} accumulate the text in the
specified buffer in the same order as they were copied. Strictly
speaking, @code{append-to-buffer} does not always append to the text
already in the buffer---it appends only if point in that buffer is at the end.
However, if @code{append-to-buffer} is the only command you use to alter
a buffer, then point is always at the end.
@kbd{M-x prepend-to-buffer} is just like @code{append-to-buffer}
except that point in the other buffer is left before the copied text, so
successive prependings add text in reverse order. @kbd{M-x
copy-to-buffer} is similar except that any existing text in the other
buffer is deleted, so the buffer is left containing just the text newly
copied into it.
To retrieve the accumulated text from another buffer, use the command
@kbd{M-x insert-buffer}; this too takes @var{buffername} as an argument.
It inserts a copy of the text in buffer @var{buffername} into the
selected buffer. You can alternatively select the other buffer for
editing, then optionally move text from it by killing. @xref{Buffers},
for background information on buffers.
Instead of accumulating text within Emacs, in a buffer, you can append
text directly into a file with @kbd{M-x append-to-file}, which takes
@var{filename} as an argument. It adds the text of the region to the end
of the specified file. The file is changed immediately on disk.
You should use @code{append-to-file} only with files that are
@emph{not} being visited in Emacs. Using it on a file that you are
editing in Emacs would change the file behind Emacs's back, which
can lead to losing some of your editing.
@node Rectangles, Registers, Accumulating Text, Top
@section Rectangles
@cindex rectangle
@cindex columns (and rectangles)
@cindex killing rectangular areas of text
The rectangle commands operate on rectangular areas of the text: all
the characters between a certain pair of columns, in a certain range of
lines. Commands are provided to kill rectangles, yank killed rectangles,
clear them out, fill them with blanks or text, or delete them. Rectangle
commands are useful with text in multicolumn formats, and for changing
text into or out of such formats.
When you must specify a rectangle for a command to work on, you do it
by putting the mark at one corner and point at the opposite corner. The
rectangle thus specified is called the @dfn{region-rectangle} because
you control it in about the same way the region is controlled. But
remember that a given combination of point and mark values can be
interpreted either as a region or as a rectangle, depending on the
command that uses them.
If point and the mark are in the same column, the rectangle they
delimit is empty. If they are in the same line, the rectangle is one
line high. This asymmetry between lines and columns comes about
because point (and likewise the mark) is between two columns, but within
a line.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r k
Kill the text of the region-rectangle, saving its contents as the
``last killed rectangle'' (@code{kill-rectangle}).
@item C-x r d
Delete the text of the region-rectangle (@code{delete-rectangle}).
@item C-x r y
Yank the last killed rectangle with its upper left corner at point
(@code{yank-rectangle}).
@item C-x r o
Insert blank space to fill the space of the region-rectangle
(@code{open-rectangle}). This pushes the previous contents of the
region-rectangle rightward.
@item M-x clear-rectangle
Clear the region-rectangle by replacing its contents with spaces.
@item M-x delete-whitespace-rectangle
Delete whitespace in each of the lines on the specified rectangle,
starting from the left edge column of the rectangle.
@item C-x r t @key{RET} @var{string} @key{RET}
Insert @var{string} on each line of the region-rectangle
(@code{string-rectangle}).
@end table
The rectangle operations fall into two classes: commands deleting and
inserting rectangles, and commands for blank rectangles.
@kindex C-x r k
@kindex C-x r d
@findex kill-rectangle
@findex delete-rectangle
There are two ways to get rid of the text in a rectangle: you can
discard the text (delete it) or save it as the ``last killed''
rectangle. The commands for these two ways are @kbd{C-x r d}
(@code{delete-rectangle}) and @kbd{C-x r k} (@code{kill-rectangle}). In
either case, the portion of each line that falls inside the rectangle's
boundaries is deleted, causing following text (if any) on the line to
move left into the gap.
Note that ``killing'' a rectangle is not killing in the usual sense; the
rectangle is not stored in the kill ring, but in a special place that
can only record the most recent rectangle killed. This is because yanking
a rectangle is so different from yanking linear text that different yank
commands have to be used and yank-popping is hard to make sense of.
@kindex C-x r y
@findex yank-rectangle
To yank the last killed rectangle, type @kbd{C-x r y}
(@code{yank-rectangle}). Yanking a rectangle is the opposite of killing
one. Point specifies where to put the rectangle's upper left corner.
The rectangle's first line is inserted there, the rectangle's second
line is inserted at a position one line vertically down, and so on. The
number of lines affected is determined by the height of the saved
rectangle.
You can convert single-column lists into double-column lists using
rectangle killing and yanking; kill the second half of the list as a
rectangle and then yank it beside the first line of the list.
@xref{Two-Column}, for another way to edit multi-column text.
You can also copy rectangles into and out of registers with @kbd{C-x r
r @var{r}} and @kbd{C-x r i @var{r}}. @xref{RegRect,,Rectangle
Registers}.
@kindex C-x r o
@findex open-rectangle
@findex clear-rectangle
There are two commands you can use for making blank rectangles:
@kbd{M-x clear-rectangle} which blanks out existing text, and @kbd{C-x r
o} (@code{open-rectangle}) which inserts a blank rectangle. Clearing a
rectangle is equivalent to deleting it and then inserting a blank
rectangle of the same size.
@findex delete-whitespace-rectangle
The command @kbd{M-x delete-whitespace-rectangle} deletes horizontal
whitespace starting from a particular column. This applies to each of
the lines in the rectangle, and the column is specified by the left
edge of the rectangle. The right edge of the rectangle does not make
any difference to this command.
@kindex C-x r t
@findex string-rectangle
The command @kbd{C-x r t} (@code{M-x string-rectangle}) replaces the
rectangle with a specified string (inserted once on each line). The
string's width need not be the same as the width of the rectangle. If
the string's width is less, the text after the rectangle shifts left; if
the string is wider than the rectangle, the text after the rectangle
shifts right.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node M-x, Help, Minibuffer, Top
@chapter Running Commands by Name
The Emacs commands that are used often or that must be quick to type are
bound to keys---short sequences of characters---for convenient use. Other
Emacs commands that do not need to be brief are not bound to keys; to run
them, you must refer to them by name.
A command name is, by convention, made up of one or more words,
separated by hyphens; for example, @code{auto-fill-mode} or
@code{manual-entry}. The use of English words makes the command name
easier to remember than a key made up of obscure characters, even though
it is more characters to type.
@kindex M-x
The way to run a command by name is to start with @kbd{M-x}, type the
command name, and finish it with @key{RET}. @kbd{M-x} uses the
minibuffer to read the command name. @key{RET} exits the minibuffer and
runs the command. The string @samp{M-x} appears at the beginning of the
minibuffer as a @dfn{prompt} to remind you to enter the name of a
command to be run. @xref{Minibuffer}, for full information on the
features of the minibuffer.
You can use completion to enter the command name. For example, the
command @code{forward-char} can be invoked by name by typing
@example
M-x forward-char @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
or
@example
M-x forw @key{TAB} c @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
Note that @code{forward-char} is the same command that you invoke with
the key @kbd{C-f}. You can run any Emacs command by name using
@kbd{M-x}, whether or not any keys are bound to it.
If you type @kbd{C-g} while the command name is being read, you cancel
the @kbd{M-x} command and get out of the minibuffer, ending up at top level.
To pass a numeric argument to the command you are invoking with
@kbd{M-x}, specify the numeric argument before the @kbd{M-x}. @kbd{M-x}
passes the argument along to the command it runs. The argument value
appears in the prompt while the command name is being read.
@vindex suggest-key-bindings
If the command you type has a key binding of its own, Emacs mentions
this in the echo area, two seconds after the command finishes (if you
don't type anything else first). For example, if you type @kbd{M-x
forward-word}, the message says that you can run the same command more
easily by typing @kbd{M-f}. You can turn off these messages by setting
@code{suggest-key-bindings} to @code{nil}.
Normally, when describing in this manual a command that is run by
name, we omit the @key{RET} that is needed to terminate the name. Thus
we might speak of @kbd{M-x auto-fill-mode} rather than @kbd{M-x
auto-fill-mode @key{RET}}. We mention the @key{RET} only when there is
a need to emphasize its presence, such as when we show the command
together with following arguments.
@findex execute-extended-command
@kbd{M-x} works by running the command
@code{execute-extended-command}, which is responsible for reading the
name of another command and invoking it.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Major Modes, Indentation, International, Top
@chapter Major Modes
@cindex major modes
@cindex mode, major
@kindex TAB @r{(and major modes)}
@kindex DEL @r{(and major modes)}
@kindex C-j @r{(and major modes)}
Emacs provides many alternative @dfn{major modes}, each of which
customizes Emacs for editing text of a particular sort. The major modes
are mutually exclusive, and each buffer has one major mode at any time.
The mode line normally shows the name of the current major mode, in
parentheses (@pxref{Mode Line}).
The least specialized major mode is called @dfn{Fundamental mode}.
This mode has no mode-specific redefinitions or variable settings, so
that each Emacs command behaves in its most general manner, and each
option is in its default state. For editing text of a specific type
that Emacs knows about, such as Lisp code or English text, you should
switch to the appropriate major mode, such as Lisp mode or Text mode.
Selecting a major mode changes the meanings of a few keys to become
more specifically adapted to the language being edited. The ones that
are changed frequently are @key{TAB}, @key{DEL}, and @kbd{C-j}. The
prefix key @kbd{C-c} normally contains mode-specific commands. In
addition, the commands which handle comments use the mode to determine
how comments are to be delimited. Many major modes redefine the
syntactical properties of characters appearing in the buffer.
@xref{Syntax}.
The major modes fall into three major groups. Lisp mode (which has
several variants), C mode, Fortran mode and others are for specific
programming languages. Text mode, Nroff mode, @TeX{} mode and Outline
mode are for editing English text. The remaining major modes are not
intended for use on users' files; they are used in buffers created for
specific purposes by Emacs, such as Dired mode for buffers made by Dired
(@pxref{Dired}), Mail mode for buffers made by @kbd{C-x m}
(@pxref{Sending Mail}), and Shell mode for buffers used for
communicating with an inferior shell process (@pxref{Interactive
Shell}).
Most programming-language major modes specify that only blank lines
separate paragraphs. This is to make the paragraph commands useful.
(@xref{Paragraphs}.) They also cause Auto Fill mode to use the
definition of @key{TAB} to indent the new lines it creates. This is
because most lines in a program are usually indented.
(@xref{Indentation}.)
@menu
* Choosing Modes:: How major modes are specified or chosen.
@end menu
@node Choosing Modes,,Major Modes,Major Modes
@section How Major Modes are Chosen
@cindex choosing a major mode
You can select a major mode explicitly for the current buffer, but
most of the time Emacs determines which mode to use based on the file
name or on special text in the file.
Explicit selection of a new major mode is done with a @kbd{M-x} command.
From the name of a major mode, add @code{-mode} to get the name of a
command to select that mode. Thus, you can enter Lisp mode by executing
@kbd{M-x lisp-mode}.
@vindex auto-mode-alist
When you visit a file, Emacs usually chooses the right major mode based
on the file's name. For example, files whose names end in @samp{.c} are
edited in C mode. The correspondence between file names and major modes is
controlled by the variable @code{auto-mode-alist}. Its value is a list in
which each element has this form,
@example
(@var{regexp} . @var{mode-function})
@end example
@noindent
or this form,
@example
(@var{regexp} @var{mode-function} @var{flag})
@end example
@noindent
For example, one element normally found in the list has the form
@code{(@t{"\\.c\\'"} . c-mode)}, and it is responsible for selecting C
mode for files whose names end in @file{.c}. (Note that @samp{\\} is
needed in Lisp syntax to include a @samp{\} in the string, which is
needed to suppress the special meaning of @samp{.} in regexps.) If the
element has the form @code{(@var{regexp} @var{mode-function}
@var{flag})} and @var{flag} is non-@code{nil}, then after calling
@var{function}, the suffix that matched @var{regexp} is discarded and
the list is searched again for another match.
You can specify which major mode should be used for editing a certain
file by a special sort of text in the first nonblank line of the file. The
mode name should appear in this line both preceded and followed by
@samp{-*-}. Other text may appear on the line as well. For example,
@example
;-*-Lisp-*-
@end example
@noindent
tells Emacs to use Lisp mode. Such an explicit specification overrides
any defaulting based on the file name. Note how the semicolon is used
to make Lisp treat this line as a comment.
Another format of mode specification is
@example
-*- mode: @var{modename};-*-
@end example
@noindent
which allows you to specify local variables as well, like this:
@example
-*- mode: @var{modename}; @var{var}: @var{value}; @dots{} -*-
@end example
@noindent
@xref{File Variables}, for more information about this.
@vindex interpreter-mode-alist
When a file's contents begin with @samp{#!}, it can serve as an
executable shell command, which works by running an interpreter named on
the file's first line. The rest of the file is used as input to the
interpreter.
When you visit such a file in Emacs, if the file's name does not
specify a major mode, Emacs uses the interpreter name on the first line
to choose a mode. If the first line is the name of a recognized
interpreter program, such as @samp{perl} or @samp{tcl}, Emacs uses a
mode appropriate for programs for that interpreter. The variable
@code{interpreter-mode-alist} specifies the correspondence between
interpreter program names and major modes.
When the first line starts with @samp{#!}, you cannot (on many
systems) use the @samp{-*-} feature on the first line, because the
system would get confused when running the interpreter. So Emacs looks
for @samp{-*-} on the second line in such files as well as on the
first line.
@vindex default-major-mode
When you visit a file that does not specify a major mode to use, or
when you create a new buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, the variable
@code{default-major-mode} specifies which major mode to use. Normally
its value is the symbol @code{fundamental-mode}, which specifies
Fundamental mode. If @code{default-major-mode} is @code{nil}, the major
mode is taken from the previously selected buffer.
@findex normal-mode
If you change the major mode of a buffer, you can go back to the major
mode Emacs would choose automatically: use the command @kbd{M-x
normal-mode} to do this. This is the same function that
@code{find-file} calls to choose the major mode. It also processes
the file's local variables list if any.
@vindex change-major-mode-with-file-name
The commands @kbd{C-x C-w} and @code{set-visited-file-name} change to
a new major mode if the new file name implies a mode (@pxref{Saving}).
However, this does not happen if the buffer contents specify a major
mode, and certain ``special'' major modes do not allow the mode to
change. You can turn off this mode-changing feature by setting
@code{change-major-mode-with-file-name} to @code{nil}.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Mark, Killing, Help, Top
@chapter The Mark and the Region
@cindex mark
@cindex setting a mark
@cindex region
Many Emacs commands operate on an arbitrary contiguous part of the
current buffer. To specify the text for such a command to operate on,
you set @dfn{the mark} at one end of it, and move point to the other
end. The text between point and the mark is called @dfn{the region}.
Emacs highlights the region whenever there is one, if you enable
Transient Mark mode (@pxref{Transient Mark}).
You can move point or the mark to adjust the boundaries of the region.
It doesn't matter which one is set first chronologically, or which one
comes earlier in the text. Once the mark has been set, it remains where
you put it until you set it again at another place. Each Emacs buffer
has its own mark, so that when you return to a buffer that had been
selected previously, it has the same mark it had before.
Many commands that insert text, such as @kbd{C-y} (@code{yank}) and
@kbd{M-x insert-buffer}, position point and the mark at opposite ends of
the inserted text, so that the region contains the text just inserted.
Aside from delimiting the region, the mark is also useful for
remembering a spot that you may want to go back to. To make this
feature more useful, each buffer remembers 16 previous locations of the
mark in the @dfn{mark ring}.
@menu
* Setting Mark:: Commands to set the mark.
* Transient Mark:: How to make Emacs highlight the region--
when there is one.
* Using Region:: Summary of ways to operate on contents of the region.
* Marking Objects:: Commands to put region around textual units.
* Mark Ring:: Previous mark positions saved so you can go back there.
* Global Mark Ring:: Previous mark positions in various buffers.
@end menu
@node Setting Mark
@section Setting the Mark
Here are some commands for setting the mark:
@c WideCommands
@table @kbd
@item C-@key{SPC}
Set the mark where point is (@code{set-mark-command}).
@item C-@@
The same.
@item C-x C-x
Interchange mark and point (@code{exchange-point-and-mark}).
@item Drag-Mouse-1
Set point and the mark around the text you drag across.
@item Mouse-3
Set the mark where point is, then move point to where you click
(@code{mouse-save-then-kill}).
@end table
For example, suppose you wish to convert part of the buffer to
upper case, using the @kbd{C-x C-u} (@code{upcase-region}) command,
which operates on the text in the region. You can first go to the
beginning of the text to be capitalized, type @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} to put
the mark there, move to the end, and then type @kbd{C-x C-u}. Or, you
can set the mark at the end of the text, move to the beginning, and then
type @kbd{C-x C-u}.
@kindex C-SPC
@findex set-mark-command
The most common way to set the mark is with the @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} command
(@code{set-mark-command}). This sets the mark where point is. Then you
can move point away, leaving the mark behind.
There are two ways to set the mark with the mouse. You can drag mouse
button one across a range of text; that puts point where you release the
mouse button, and sets the mark at the other end of that range. Or you
can click mouse button three, which sets the mark at point (like
@kbd{C-@key{SPC}}) and then moves point (like @kbd{Mouse-1}). Both of
these methods copy the region into the kill ring in addition to setting
the mark; that gives behavior consistent with other window-driven
applications, but if you don't want to modify the kill ring, you must
use keyboard commands to set the mark. @xref{Mouse Commands}.
@kindex C-x C-x
@findex exchange-point-and-mark
Ordinary terminals have only one cursor, so there is no way for Emacs
to show you where the mark is located. You have to remember. The usual
solution to this problem is to set the mark and then use it soon, before
you forget where it is. Alternatively, you can see where the mark is
with the command @kbd{C-x C-x} (@code{exchange-point-and-mark}) which
puts the mark where point was and point where the mark was. The extent
of the region is unchanged, but the cursor and point are now at the
previous position of the mark. In Transient Mark mode, this command
reactivates the mark.
@kbd{C-x C-x} is also useful when you are satisfied with the position
of point but want to move the other end of the region (where the mark
is); do @kbd{C-x C-x} to put point at that end of the region, and then
move it. A second use of @kbd{C-x C-x}, if necessary, puts the mark at
the new position with point back at its original position.
@kindex C-@@
There is no such character as @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} in ASCII; when you
type @key{SPC} while holding down @key{CTRL}, what you get on most
ordinary terminals is the character @kbd{C-@@}. This key is actually
bound to @code{set-mark-command}. But unless you are unlucky enough to
have a terminal where typing @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} does not produce
@kbd{C-@@}, you might as well think of this character as
@kbd{C-@key{SPC}}. Under X, @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} is actually a distinct
character, but its binding is still @code{set-mark-command}.
@node Transient Mark
@section Transient Mark Mode
@cindex mode, Transient Mark
@cindex Transient Mark mode
@cindex highlighting region
@cindex region highlighting
Emacs can highlight the current region, using X Windows. But normally
it does not. Why not?
Highlighting the region doesn't work well ordinarily in Emacs, because
once you have set a mark, there is @emph{always} a region (in that
buffer). And highlighting the region all the time would be a nuisance.
You can turn on region highlighting by enabling Transient Mark mode.
This is a more rigid mode of operation in which the region ``lasts''
only temporarily, so you must set up a region for each command that uses
one. In Transient Mark mode, most of the time there is no region;
therefore, highlighting the region when it exists is convenient.
@findex transient-mark-mode
To enable Transient Mark mode, type @kbd{M-x transient-mark-mode}.
This command toggles the mode, so you can repeat the command to turn off
the mode.
Here are the details of Transient Mark mode:
@itemize @bullet
@item
To set the mark, type @kbd{C-@key{SPC}} (@code{set-mark-command}).
This makes the mark active; as you move point, you will see the region
highlighting grow and shrink.
@item
The mouse commands for specifying the mark also make it active. So do
keyboard commands whose purpose is to specify a region, including
@kbd{M-@@}, @kbd{C-M-@@}, @kbd{M-h}, @kbd{C-M-h}, @kbd{C-x C-p}, and
@kbd{C-x h}.
@item
When the mark is active, you can execute commands that operate on the
region, such as killing, indenting, or writing to a file.
@item
Any change to the buffer, such as inserting or deleting a character,
deactivates the mark. This means any subsequent command that operates
on a region will get an error and refuse to operate. You can make the
region active again by typing @kbd{C-x C-x}.
@item
Commands like @kbd{M->} and @kbd{C-s} that ``leave the mark behind'' in
addition to some other primary purpose do not activate the new mark.
You can activate the new region by executing @kbd{C-x C-x}
(@code{exchange-point-and-mark}).
@item
@kbd{C-s} when the mark is active does not alter the mark.
@item
Quitting with @kbd{C-g} deactivates the mark.
@end itemize
Highlighting of the region uses the @code{region} face; you can
customize how the region is highlighted by changing this face.
@xref{Face Customization}.
@vindex highlight-nonselected-windows
When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point (though they
all share one common mark position). Ordinarily, only the selected
window highlights its region (@pxref{Windows}). However, if the
variable @code{highlight-nonselected-windows} is non-@code{nil}, then
each window highlights its own region (provided that Transient Mark mode
is enabled and the window's buffer's mark is active).
When Transient Mark mode is not enabled, every command that sets the
mark also activates it, and nothing ever deactivates it.
@vindex mark-even-if-inactive
If the variable @code{mark-even-if-inactive} is non-@code{nil} in
Transient Mark mode, then commands can use the mark and the region
even when it is inactive. Region highlighting appears and disappears
just as it normally does in Transient Mark mode, but the mark doesn't
really go away when the highlighting disappears.
@cindex Zmacs mode
Transient Mark mode is also sometimes known as ``Zmacs mode''
because the Zmacs editor on the MIT Lisp Machine handled the mark in a
similar way.
@node Using Region
@section Operating on the Region
@cindex operations on a marked region
Once you have a region and the mark is active, here are some of the
ways you can operate on the region:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Kill it with @kbd{C-w} (@pxref{Killing}).
@item
Save it in a register with @kbd{C-x r s} (@pxref{Registers}).
@item
Save it in a buffer or a file (@pxref{Accumulating Text}).
@item
Convert case with @kbd{C-x C-l} or @kbd{C-x C-u} (@pxref{Case}).
@item
Indent it with @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} or @kbd{C-M-\} (@pxref{Indentation}).
@item
Fill it as text with @kbd{M-x fill-region} (@pxref{Filling}).
@item
Print hardcopy with @kbd{M-x print-region} (@pxref{Hardcopy}).
@item
Evaluate it as Lisp code with @kbd{M-x eval-region} (@pxref{Lisp Eval}).
@end itemize
Most commands that operate on the text in the
region have the word @code{region} in their names.
@node Marking Objects
@section Commands to Mark Textual Objects
@cindex marking sections of text
Here are the commands for placing point and the mark around a textual
object such as a word, list, paragraph or page.
@table @kbd
@item M-@@
Set mark after end of next word (@code{mark-word}). This command and
the following one do not move point.
@item C-M-@@
Set mark after end of next Lisp expression (@code{mark-sexp}).
@item M-h
Put region around current paragraph (@code{mark-paragraph}).
@item C-M-h
Put region around current Lisp defun (@code{mark-defun}).
@item C-x h
Put region around entire buffer (@code{mark-whole-buffer}).
@item C-x C-p
Put region around current page (@code{mark-page}).
@end table
@kbd{M-@@} (@code{mark-word}) puts the mark at the end of the next word,
while @kbd{C-M-@@} (@code{mark-sexp}) puts it at the end of the next Lisp
expression. These commands handle arguments just like @kbd{M-f} and
@kbd{C-M-f}.
@kindex C-x h
@findex mark-whole-buffer
Other commands set both point and mark, to delimit an object in the
buffer. For example, @kbd{M-h} (@code{mark-paragraph}) moves point to
the beginning of the paragraph that surrounds or follows point, and puts
the mark at the end of that paragraph (@pxref{Paragraphs}). It prepares
the region so you can indent, case-convert, or kill a whole paragraph.
@kbd{C-M-h} (@code{mark-defun}) similarly puts point before and the
mark after the current or following defun (@pxref{Defuns}). @kbd{C-x
C-p} (@code{mark-page}) puts point before the current page, and mark at
the end (@pxref{Pages}). The mark goes after the terminating page
delimiter (to include it), while point goes after the preceding page
delimiter (to exclude it). A numeric argument specifies a later page
(if positive) or an earlier page (if negative) instead of the current
page.
Finally, @kbd{C-x h} (@code{mark-whole-buffer}) sets up the entire
buffer as the region, by putting point at the beginning and the mark at
the end.
In Transient Mark mode, all of these commands activate the mark.
@node Mark Ring
@section The Mark Ring
@kindex C-u C-SPC
@cindex mark ring
@kindex C-u C-@@
Aside from delimiting the region, the mark is also useful for
remembering a spot that you may want to go back to. To make this
feature more useful, each buffer remembers 16 previous locations of the
mark, in the @dfn{mark ring}. Commands that set the mark also push the
old mark onto this ring. To return to a marked location, use @kbd{C-u
C-@key{SPC}} (or @kbd{C-u C-@@}); this is the command
@code{set-mark-command} given a numeric argument. It moves point to
where the mark was, and restores the mark from the ring of former
marks. Thus, repeated use of this command moves point to all of the old
marks on the ring, one by one. The mark positions you move through in
this way are not lost; they go to the end of the ring.
Each buffer has its own mark ring. All editing commands use the current
buffer's mark ring. In particular, @kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}} always stays in
the same buffer.
Many commands that can move long distances, such as @kbd{M-<}
(@code{beginning-of-buffer}), start by setting the mark and saving the
old mark on the mark ring. This is to make it easier for you to move
back later. Searches set the mark if they move point. You can tell
when a command sets the mark because it displays @samp{Mark Set} in the
echo area.
If you want to move back to the same place over and over, the mark
ring may not be convenient enough. If so, you can record the position
in a register for later retrieval (@pxref{RegPos}).
@vindex mark-ring-max
The variable @code{mark-ring-max} specifies the maximum number of
entries to keep in the mark ring. If that many entries exist and
another one is pushed, the last one in the list is discarded. Repeating
@kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}} cycles through the positions currently in the
ring.
@vindex mark-ring
The variable @code{mark-ring} holds the mark ring itself, as a list of
marker objects, with the most recent first. This variable is local in
every buffer.
@node Global Mark Ring
@section The Global Mark Ring
@cindex global mark ring
In addition to the ordinary mark ring that belongs to each buffer,
Emacs has a single @dfn{global mark ring}. It records a sequence of
buffers in which you have recently set the mark, so you can go back
to those buffers.
Setting the mark always makes an entry on the current buffer's mark
ring. If you have switched buffers since the previous mark setting, the
new mark position makes an entry on the global mark ring also. The
result is that the global mark ring records a sequence of buffers that
you have been in, and, for each buffer, a place where you set the mark.
@kindex C-x C-@key{SPC}
@findex pop-global-mark
The command @kbd{C-x C-@key{SPC}} (@code{pop-global-mark}) jumps to
the buffer and position of the latest entry in the global ring. It also
rotates the ring, so that successive uses of @kbd{C-x C-@key{SPC}} take
you to earlier and earlier buffers.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Minibuffer, M-x, Basic, Top
@chapter The Minibuffer
@cindex minibuffer
The @dfn{minibuffer} is the facility used by Emacs commands to read
arguments more complicated than a single number. Minibuffer arguments
can be file names, buffer names, Lisp function names, Emacs command
names, Lisp expressions, and many other things, depending on the command
reading the argument. You can use the usual Emacs editing commands in
the minibuffer to edit the argument text.
@cindex prompt
When the minibuffer is in use, it appears in the echo area, and the
terminal's cursor moves there. The beginning of the minibuffer line
displays a @dfn{prompt} which says what kind of input you should supply and
how it will be used. Often this prompt is derived from the name of the
command that the argument is for. The prompt normally ends with a colon.
@cindex default argument
Sometimes a @dfn{default argument} appears in parentheses after the
colon; it too is part of the prompt. The default will be used as the
argument value if you enter an empty argument (for example, just type
@key{RET}). For example, commands that read buffer names always show a
default, which is the name of the buffer that will be used if you type
just @key{RET}.
The simplest way to enter a minibuffer argument is to type the text
you want, terminated by @key{RET} which exits the minibuffer. You can
cancel the command that wants the argument, and get out of the
minibuffer, by typing @kbd{C-g}.
Since the minibuffer uses the screen space of the echo area, it can
conflict with other ways Emacs customarily uses the echo area. Here is how
Emacs handles such conflicts:
@itemize @bullet
@item
If a command gets an error while you are in the minibuffer, this does
not cancel the minibuffer. However, the echo area is needed for the
error message and therefore the minibuffer itself is hidden for a
while. It comes back after a few seconds, or as soon as you type
anything.
@item
If in the minibuffer you use a command whose purpose is to print a
message in the echo area, such as @kbd{C-x =}, the message is printed
normally, and the minibuffer is hidden for a while. It comes back
after a few seconds, or as soon as you type anything.
@item
Echoing of keystrokes does not take place while the minibuffer is in
use.
@end itemize
@menu
* File: Minibuffer File. Entering file names with the minibuffer.
* Edit: Minibuffer Edit. How to edit in the minibuffer.
* Completion:: An abbreviation facility for minibuffer input.
* Minibuffer History:: Reusing recent minibuffer arguments.
* Repetition:: Re-executing commands that used the minibuffer.
@end menu
@node Minibuffer File
@section Minibuffers for File Names
Sometimes the minibuffer starts out with text in it. For example, when
you are supposed to give a file name, the minibuffer starts out containing
the @dfn{default directory}, which ends with a slash. This is to inform
you which directory the file will be found in if you do not specify a
directory.
@c Separate paragraph to clean up ugly pagebreak--rms
@need 1500
For example, the minibuffer might start out with these contents:
@example
Find File: /u2/emacs/src/
@end example
@noindent
where @samp{Find File:@: } is the prompt. Typing @kbd{buffer.c}
specifies the file @file{/u2/emacs/src/buffer.c}. To find files in
nearby directories, use @kbd{..}; thus, if you type
@kbd{../lisp/simple.el}, you will get the file named
@file{/u2/emacs/lisp/simple.el}. Alternatively, you can kill with
@kbd{M-@key{DEL}} the directory names you don't want (@pxref{Words}).
If you don't want any of the default, you can kill it with @kbd{C-a
C-k}. But you don't need to kill the default; you can simply ignore it.
Insert an absolute file name, one starting with a slash or a tilde,
after the default directory. For example, to specify the file
@file{/etc/termcap}, just insert that name, giving these minibuffer
contents:
@example
Find File: /u2/emacs/src//etc/termcap
@end example
@noindent
@cindex // in file name
@cindex double slash in file name
@cindex slashes repeated in file name
GNU Emacs gives a special meaning to a double slash (which is not
normally a useful thing to write): it means, ``ignore everything before
the second slash in the pair.'' Thus, @samp{/u2/emacs/src/} is ignored
in the example above, and you get the file @file{/etc/termcap}.
If you set @code{insert-default-directory} to @code{nil}, the default
directory is not inserted in the minibuffer. This way, the minibuffer
starts out empty. But the name you type, if relative, is still
interpreted with respect to the same default directory.
@node Minibuffer Edit
@section Editing in the Minibuffer
The minibuffer is an Emacs buffer (albeit a peculiar one), and the usual
Emacs commands are available for editing the text of an argument you are
entering.
Since @key{RET} in the minibuffer is defined to exit the minibuffer,
you can't use it to insert a newline in the minibuffer. To do that,
type @kbd{C-o} or @kbd{C-q C-j}. (Recall that a newline is really the
character control-J.)
The minibuffer has its own window which always has space on the screen
but acts as if it were not there when the minibuffer is not in use. When
the minibuffer is in use, its window is just like the others; you can
switch to another window with @kbd{C-x o}, edit text in other windows and
perhaps even visit more files, before returning to the minibuffer to submit
the argument. You can kill text in another window, return to the
minibuffer window, and then yank the text to use it in the argument.
@xref{Windows}.
@findex resize-minibuffer-mode
@cindex Resize-Minibuffer mode
@cindex mode, Resize-Minibuffer
@cindex height of minibuffer
@cindex size of minibuffer
@cindex growing minibuffer
There are some restrictions on the use of the minibuffer window,
however. You cannot switch buffers in it---the minibuffer and its
window are permanently attached. Also, you cannot split or kill the
minibuffer window. But you can make it taller in the normal fashion
with @kbd{C-x ^}. If you enable Resize-Minibuffer mode, then the
minibuffer window expands vertically as necessary to hold the text that
you put in the minibuffer. Use @kbd{M-x resize-minibuffer-mode} to
enable or disable this minor mode (@pxref{Minor Modes}).
@vindex minibuffer-scroll-overlap
Scrolling works specially in the minibuffer window. When the
minibuffer is just one line high, and it contains a long line of text
that won't fit on the screen, scrolling automatically maintains an
overlap of a certain number of characters from one continuation line to
the next. The variable @code{minibuffer-scroll-overlap} specifies how
many characters of overlap; the default is 20.
If while in the minibuffer you issue a command that displays help text
of any sort in another window, you can use the @kbd{C-M-v} command while
in the minibuffer to scroll the help text. This lasts until you exit
the minibuffer. This feature is especially useful if a completing
minibuffer gives you a list of possible completions. @xref{Other Window}.
@vindex enable-recursive-minibuffers
Emacs normally disallows most commands that use the minibuffer while
the minibuffer is active. This rule is to prevent recursive minibuffers
from confusing novice users. If you want to be able to use such
commands in the minibuffer, set the variable
@code{enable-recursive-minibuffers} to a non-@code{nil} value.
@node Completion
@section Completion
@cindex completion
For certain kinds of arguments, you can use @dfn{completion} to enter
the argument value. Completion means that you type part of the
argument, then Emacs visibly fills in the rest, or as much as
can be determined from the part you have typed.
When completion is available, certain keys---@key{TAB}, @key{RET}, and
@key{SPC}---are rebound to complete the text present in the minibuffer
into a longer string that it stands for, by matching it against a set of
@dfn{completion alternatives} provided by the command reading the
argument. @kbd{?} is defined to display a list of possible completions
of what you have inserted.
For example, when @kbd{M-x} uses the minibuffer to read the name of a
command, it provides a list of all available Emacs command names to
complete against. The completion keys match the text in the minibuffer
against all the command names, find any additional name characters
implied by the ones already present in the minibuffer, and add those
characters to the ones you have given. This is what makes it possible
to type @kbd{M-x ins @key{SPC} b @key{RET}} instead of @kbd{M-x
insert-buffer @key{RET}} (for example).
Case is normally significant in completion, because it is significant
in most of the names that you can complete (buffer names, file names and
command names). Thus, @samp{fo} does not complete to @samp{Foo}.
Completion does ignore case distinctions for certain arguments in which
case does not matter.
@menu
* Example: Completion Example.
* Commands: Completion Commands.
* Strict Completion::
* Options: Completion Options.
@end menu
@node Completion Example
@subsection Completion Example
@kindex TAB @r{(completion)}
@findex minibuffer-complete
A concrete example may help here. If you type @kbd{M-x au @key{TAB}},
the @key{TAB} looks for alternatives (in this case, command names) that
start with @samp{au}. There are several, including
@code{auto-fill-mode} and @code{auto-save-mode}---but they are all the
same as far as @code{auto-}, so the @samp{au} in the minibuffer changes
to @samp{auto-}.@refill
If you type @key{TAB} again immediately, there are multiple
possibilities for the very next character---it could be any of
@samp{cfilrs}---so no more characters are added; instead, @key{TAB}
displays a list of all possible completions in another window.
If you go on to type @kbd{f @key{TAB}}, this @key{TAB} sees
@samp{auto-f}. The only command name starting this way is
@code{auto-fill-mode}, so completion fills in the rest of that. You now
have @samp{auto-fill-mode} in the minibuffer after typing just @kbd{au
@key{TAB} f @key{TAB}}. Note that @key{TAB} has this effect because in
the minibuffer it is bound to the command @code{minibuffer-complete}
when completion is available.
@node Completion Commands
@subsection Completion Commands
Here is a list of the completion commands defined in the minibuffer
when completion is available.
@table @kbd
@item @key{TAB}
Complete the text in the minibuffer as much as possible
(@code{minibuffer-complete}).
@item @key{SPC}
Complete the minibuffer text, but don't go beyond one word
(@code{minibuffer-complete-word}).
@item @key{RET}
Submit the text in the minibuffer as the argument, possibly completing
first as described below (@code{minibuffer-complete-and-exit}).
@item ?
Print a list of all possible completions of the text in the minibuffer
(@code{minibuffer-list-completions}).
@end table
@kindex SPC
@findex minibuffer-complete-word
@key{SPC} completes much like @key{TAB}, but never goes beyond the
next hyphen or space. If you have @samp{auto-f} in the minibuffer and
type @key{SPC}, it finds that the completion is @samp{auto-fill-mode},
but it stops completing after @samp{fill-}. This gives
@samp{auto-fill-}. Another @key{SPC} at this point completes all the
way to @samp{auto-fill-mode}. @key{SPC} in the minibuffer when
completion is available runs the command
@code{minibuffer-complete-word}.
Here are some commands you can use to choose a completion from a
window that displays a list of completions:
@table @kbd
@findex mouse-choose-completion
@item Mouse-2
Clicking mouse button 2 on a completion in the list of possible
completions chooses that completion (@code{mouse-choose-completion}).
You normally use this command while point is in the minibuffer; but you
must click in the list of completions, not in the minibuffer itself.
@findex switch-to-completions
@item @key{PRIOR}
@itemx M-v
Typing @key{PRIOR} or @key{PAGE-UP}, or @kbd{M-v}, while in the
minibuffer, selects the window showing the completion list buffer
(@code{switch-to-completions}). This paves the way for using the
commands below. (Selecting that window in the usual ways has the same
effect, but this way is more convenient.)
@findex choose-completion
@item @key{RET}
Typing @key{RET} @emph{in the completion list buffer} chooses the
completion that point is in or next to (@code{choose-completion}). To
use this command, you must first switch windows to the window that shows
the list of completions.
@findex next-completion
@item @key{RIGHT}
Typing the right-arrow key @key{RIGHT} @emph{in the completion list
buffer} moves point to the following completion (@code{next-completion}).
@findex previous-completion
@item @key{LEFT}
Typing the left-arrow key @key{LEFT} @emph{in the completion list
buffer} moves point toward the beginning of the buffer, to the previous
completion (@code{previous-completion}).
@end table
@node Strict Completion
@subsection Strict Completion
There are three different ways that @key{RET} can work in completing
minibuffers, depending on how the argument will be used.
@itemize @bullet
@item
@dfn{Strict} completion is used when it is meaningless to give any
argument except one of the known alternatives. For example, when
@kbd{C-x k} reads the name of a buffer to kill, it is meaningless to
give anything but the name of an existing buffer. In strict
completion, @key{RET} refuses to exit if the text in the minibuffer
does not complete to an exact match.
@item
@dfn{Cautious} completion is similar to strict completion, except that
@key{RET} exits only if the text was an exact match already, not
needing completion. If the text is not an exact match, @key{RET} does
not exit, but it does complete the text. If it completes to an exact
match, a second @key{RET} will exit.
Cautious completion is used for reading file names for files that must
already exist.
@item
@dfn{Permissive} completion is used when any string whatever is
meaningful, and the list of completion alternatives is just a guide.
For example, when @kbd{C-x C-f} reads the name of a file to visit, any
file name is allowed, in case you want to create a file. In
permissive completion, @key{RET} takes the text in the minibuffer
exactly as given, without completing it.
@end itemize
The completion commands display a list of all possible completions in
a window whenever there is more than one possibility for the very next
character. Also, typing @kbd{?} explicitly requests such a list. If
the list of completions is long, you can scroll it with @kbd{C-M-v}
(@pxref{Other Window}).
@node Completion Options
@subsection Completion Options
@vindex completion-ignored-extensions
When completion is done on file names, certain file names are usually
ignored. The variable @code{completion-ignored-extensions} contains a
list of strings; a file whose name ends in any of those strings is
ignored as a possible completion. The standard value of this variable
has several elements including @code{".o"}, @code{".elc"}, @code{".dvi"}
and @code{"~"}. The effect is that, for example, @samp{foo} can
complete to @samp{foo.c} even though @samp{foo.o} exists as well.
However, if @emph{all} the possible completions end in ``ignored''
strings, then they are not ignored. Ignored extensions do not apply to
lists of completions---those always mention all possible completions.
@vindex completion-auto-help
Normally, a completion command that finds the next character is undetermined
automatically displays a list of all possible completions. If the variable
@code{completion-auto-help} is set to @code{nil}, this does not happen,
and you must type @kbd{?} to display the possible completions.
@pindex complete
The @code{complete} library implements a more powerful kind of
completion that can complete multiple words at a time. For example, it
can complete the command name abbreviation @code{p-b} into
@code{print-buffer}, because no other command starts with two words
whose initials are @samp{p} and @samp{b}. To use this library, put
@code{(load "complete")} in your @file{~/.emacs} file (@pxref{Init
File}).
@cindex Icomplete mode
Icomplete mode presents a constantly-updated display that tells you
what completions are available for the text you've entered so far. The
command to enable or disable this minor mode is @kbd{M-x
icomplete-mode}.
@node Minibuffer History
@section Minibuffer History
@cindex minibuffer history
@cindex history of minibuffer input
Every argument that you enter with the minibuffer is saved on a
@dfn{minibuffer history list} so that you can use it again later in
another argument. Special commands load the text of an earlier argument
in the minibuffer. They discard the old minibuffer contents, so you can
think of them as moving through the history of previous arguments.
@table @kbd
@item @key{UP}
@itemx M-p
Move to the next earlier argument string saved in the minibuffer history
(@code{previous-history-element}).
@item @key{DOWN}
@itemx M-n
Move to the next later argument string saved in the minibuffer history
(@code{next-history-element}).
@item M-r @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Move to an earlier saved argument in the minibuffer history that has a
match for @var{regexp} (@code{previous-matching-history-element}).
@item M-s @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Move to a later saved argument in the minibuffer history that has a
match for @var{regexp} (@code{next-matching-history-element}).
@end table
@kindex M-p @r{(minibuffer history)}
@kindex M-n @r{(minibuffer history)}
@findex next-history-element
@findex previous-history-element
The simplest way to reuse the saved arguments in the history list is
to move through the history list one element at a time. While in the
minibuffer, use @kbd{M-p} or up-arrow (@code{previous-history-element})
to ``move to'' the next earlier minibuffer input, and use @kbd{M-n} or
down-arrow (@code{next-history-element}) to ``move to'' the next later
input.
The previous input that you fetch from the history entirely replaces
the contents of the minibuffer. To use it as the argument, exit the
minibuffer as usual with @key{RET}. You can also edit the text before
you reuse it; this does not change the history element that you
``moved'' to, but your new argument does go at the end of the history
list in its own right.
For many minibuffer arguments there is a ``default'' value. In some
cases, the minibuffer history commands know the default value. Then you
can insert the default value into the minibuffer as text by using
@kbd{M-n} to move ``into the future'' in the history. Eventually we
hope to make this feature available whenever the minibuffer has a
default value.
@findex previous-matching-history-element
@findex next-matching-history-element
@kindex M-r @r{(minibuffer history)}
@kindex M-s @r{(minibuffer history)}
There are also commands to search forward or backward through the
history; they search for history elements that match a regular
expression that you specify with the minibuffer. @kbd{M-r}
(@code{previous-matching-history-element}) searches older elements in
the history, while @kbd{M-s} (@code{next-matching-history-element})
searches newer elements. By special dispensation, these commands can
use the minibuffer to read their arguments even though you are already
in the minibuffer when you issue them. As with incremental searching,
an uppercase letter in the regular expression makes the search
case-sensitive (@pxref{Search Case}).
@ignore
We may change the precise way these commands read their arguments.
Perhaps they will search for a match for the string given so far in the
minibuffer; perhaps they will search for a literal match rather than a
regular expression match; perhaps they will only accept matches at the
beginning of a history element; perhaps they will read the string to
search for incrementally like @kbd{C-s}. To find out what interface is
actually available, type @kbd{C-h f previous-matching-history-element}.
@end ignore
All uses of the minibuffer record your input on a history list, but
there are separate history lists for different kinds of arguments. For
example, there is a list for file names, used by all the commands that
read file names. (As a special feature, this history list records
the absolute file name, no more and no less, even if that is not how
you entered the file name.)
There are several other very specific history lists, including one for
command names read by @kbd{M-x}, one for buffer names, one for arguments
of commands like @code{query-replace}, and one for compilation commands
read by @code{compile}. Finally, there is one ``miscellaneous'' history
list that most minibuffer arguments use.
@vindex history-length
The variable @code{history-length} specifies the maximum length of a
minibuffer history list; once a list gets that long, the oldest element
is deleted each time an element is added. If the value of
@code{history-length} is @code{t}, though, there is no maximum length
and elements are never deleted.
@node Repetition
@section Repeating Minibuffer Commands
@cindex command history
@cindex history of commands
Every command that uses the minibuffer at least once is recorded on a
special history list, together with the values of its arguments, so that
you can repeat the entire command. In particular, every use of
@kbd{M-x} is recorded there, since @kbd{M-x} uses the minibuffer to read
the command name.
@findex list-command-history
@c widecommands
@table @kbd
@item C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}
Re-execute a recent minibuffer command (@code{repeat-complex-command}).
@item M-x list-command-history
Display the entire command history, showing all the commands
@kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}} can repeat, most recent first.
@end table
@kindex C-x ESC ESC
@findex repeat-complex-command
@kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}} is used to re-execute a recent
minibuffer-using command. With no argument, it repeats the last such
command. A numeric argument specifies which command to repeat; one
means the last one, and larger numbers specify earlier ones.
@kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}} works by turning the previous command
into a Lisp expression and then entering a minibuffer initialized with
the text for that expression. If you type just @key{RET}, the command
is repeated as before. You can also change the command by editing the
Lisp expression. Whatever expression you finally submit is what will be
executed. The repeated command is added to the front of the command
history unless it is identical to the most recently executed command
already there.
Even if you don't understand Lisp syntax, it will probably be obvious
which command is displayed for repetition. If you do not change the
text, it will repeat exactly as before.
Once inside the minibuffer for @kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC}}, you can
use the minibuffer history commands (@kbd{M-p}, @kbd{M-n}, @kbd{M-r},
@kbd{M-s}; @pxref{Minibuffer History}) to move through the history list
of saved entire commands. After finding the desired previous command,
you can edit its expression as usual and then resubmit it by typing
@key{RET} as usual.
@vindex command-history
The list of previous minibuffer-using commands is stored as a Lisp
list in the variable @code{command-history}. Each element is a Lisp
expression which describes one command and its arguments. Lisp programs
can re-execute a command by calling @code{eval} with the
@code{command-history} element.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Picture, Sending Mail, Abbrevs, Top
@chapter Editing Pictures
@cindex pictures
@cindex making pictures out of text characters
@findex edit-picture
To edit a picture made out of text characters (for example, a picture
of the division of a register into fields, as a comment in a program),
use the command @kbd{M-x edit-picture} to enter Picture mode.
In Picture mode, editing is based on the @dfn{quarter-plane} model of
text, according to which the text characters lie studded on an area that
stretches infinitely far to the right and downward. The concept of the end
of a line does not exist in this model; the most you can say is where the
last nonblank character on the line is found.
Of course, Emacs really always considers text as a sequence of
characters, and lines really do have ends. But Picture mode replaces
the most frequently-used commands with variants that simulate the
quarter-plane model of text. They do this by inserting spaces or by
converting tabs to spaces.
Most of the basic editing commands of Emacs are redefined by Picture mode
to do essentially the same thing but in a quarter-plane way. In addition,
Picture mode defines various keys starting with the @kbd{C-c} prefix to
run special picture editing commands.
One of these keys, @kbd{C-c C-c}, is pretty important. Often a
picture is part of a larger file that is usually edited in some other
major mode. @kbd{M-x edit-picture} records the name of the previous
major mode so you can use the @kbd{C-c C-c} command
(@code{picture-mode-exit}) later to go back to that mode. @kbd{C-c C-c}
also deletes spaces from the ends of lines, unless given a numeric
argument.
The special commands of Picture mode all work in other modes (provided
the @file{picture} library is loaded), but are not bound to keys except
in Picture mode. The descriptions below talk of moving ``one column''
and so on, but all the picture mode commands handle numeric arguments as
their normal equivalents do.
@vindex picture-mode-hook
Turning on Picture mode runs the hook @code{picture-mode-hook}
(@pxref{Hooks}).
@menu
* Basic Picture:: Basic concepts and simple commands of Picture Mode.
* Insert in Picture:: Controlling direction of cursor motion
after "self-inserting" characters.
* Tabs in Picture:: Various features for tab stops and indentation.
* Rectangles in Picture:: Clearing and superimposing rectangles.
@end menu
@node Basic Picture, Insert in Picture, Picture, Picture
@section Basic Editing in Picture Mode
@findex picture-forward-column
@findex picture-backward-column
@findex picture-move-down
@findex picture-move-up
@cindex editing in Picture mode
Most keys do the same thing in Picture mode that they usually do, but
do it in a quarter-plane style. For example, @kbd{C-f} is rebound to
run @code{picture-forward-column}, a command which moves point one
column to the right, inserting a space if necessary so that the actual
end of the line makes no difference. @kbd{C-b} is rebound to run
@code{picture-backward-column}, which always moves point left one
column, converting a tab to multiple spaces if necessary. @kbd{C-n} and
@kbd{C-p} are rebound to run @code{picture-move-down} and
@code{picture-move-up}, which can either insert spaces or convert tabs
as necessary to make sure that point stays in exactly the same column.
@kbd{C-e} runs @code{picture-end-of-line}, which moves to after the last
nonblank character on the line. There is no need to change @kbd{C-a},
as the choice of screen model does not affect beginnings of
lines.
@findex picture-newline
Insertion of text is adapted to the quarter-plane screen model through
the use of Overwrite mode (@pxref{Minor Modes}). Self-inserting characters
replace existing text, column by column, rather than pushing existing text
to the right. @key{RET} runs @code{picture-newline}, which just moves to
the beginning of the following line so that new text will replace that
line.
@findex picture-backward-clear-column
@findex picture-clear-column
@findex picture-clear-line
Picture mode provides erasure instead of deletion and killing of
text. @key{DEL} (@code{picture-backward-clear-column}) replaces the
preceding character with a space rather than removing it; this moves
point backwards. @kbd{C-d} (@code{picture-clear-column}) replaces the
next character or characters with spaces, but does not move point. (If
you want to clear characters to spaces and move forward over them, use
@key{SPC}.) @kbd{C-k} (@code{picture-clear-line}) really kills the
contents of lines, but does not delete the newlines from the
buffer.
@findex picture-open-line
To do actual insertion, you must use special commands. @kbd{C-o}
(@code{picture-open-line}) creates a blank line after the current line;
it never splits a line. @kbd{C-M-o} (@code{split-line}) makes sense in
Picture mode, so it is not changed. @kbd{C-j}
(@code{picture-duplicate-line}) inserts below the current line another
line with the same contents.@refill
@kindex C-c C-d @r{(Picture mode)}
To do actual deletion in Picture mode, use @kbd{C-w}, @kbd{C-c C-d}
(which is defined as @code{delete-char}, as @kbd{C-d} is in other
modes), or one of the picture rectangle commands (@pxref{Rectangles in
Picture}).
@node Insert in Picture, Tabs in Picture, Basic Picture, Picture
@section Controlling Motion after Insert
@findex picture-movement-up
@findex picture-movement-down
@findex picture-movement-left
@findex picture-movement-right
@findex picture-movement-nw
@findex picture-movement-ne
@findex picture-movement-sw
@findex picture-movement-se
@kindex C-c < @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c > @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c ^ @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c . @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c ` @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c ' @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c / @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c \ @r{(Picture mode)}
Since ``self-inserting'' characters in Picture mode overwrite and move
point, there is no essential restriction on how point should be moved.
Normally point moves right, but you can specify any of the eight
orthogonal or diagonal directions for motion after a ``self-inserting''
character. This is useful for drawing lines in the buffer.
@table @kbd
@item C-c <
Move left after insertion (@code{picture-movement-left}).
@item C-c >
Move right after insertion (@code{picture-movement-right}).
@item C-c ^
Move up after insertion (@code{picture-movement-up}).
@item C-c .
Move down after insertion (@code{picture-movement-down}).
@item C-c `
Move up and left (``northwest'') after insertion (@code{picture-movement-nw}).
@item C-c '
Move up and right (``northeast'') after insertion
(@code{picture-movement-ne}).
@item C-c /
Move down and left (``southwest'') after insertion
@*(@code{picture-movement-sw}).
@item C-c \
Move down and right (``southeast'') after insertion
@*(@code{picture-movement-se}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-f @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c C-b @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-motion
@findex picture-motion-reverse
Two motion commands move based on the current Picture insertion
direction. The command @kbd{C-c C-f} (@code{picture-motion}) moves in the
same direction as motion after ``insertion'' currently does, while @kbd{C-c
C-b} (@code{picture-motion-reverse}) moves in the opposite direction.
@node Tabs in Picture, Rectangles in Picture, Insert in Picture, Picture
@section Picture Mode Tabs
@kindex M-TAB @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-tab-search
@vindex picture-tab-chars
Two kinds of tab-like action are provided in Picture mode. Use
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}} (@code{picture-tab-search}) for context-based tabbing.
With no argument, it moves to a point underneath the next
``interesting'' character that follows whitespace in the previous
nonblank line. ``Next'' here means ``appearing at a horizontal position
greater than the one point starts out at.'' With an argument, as in
@kbd{C-u M-@key{TAB}}, this command moves to the next such interesting
character in the current line. @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} does not change the
text; it only moves point. ``Interesting'' characters are defined by
the variable @code{picture-tab-chars}, which should define a set of
characters. The syntax for this variable is like the syntax used inside
of @samp{[@dots{}]} in a regular expression---but without the @samp{[}
and the @samp{]}. Its default value is @code{"!-~"}.
@findex picture-tab
@key{TAB} itself runs @code{picture-tab}, which operates based on the
current tab stop settings; it is the Picture mode equivalent of
@code{tab-to-tab-stop}. Normally it just moves point, but with a numeric
argument it clears the text that it moves over.
@kindex C-c TAB @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-set-tab-stops
The context-based and tab-stop-based forms of tabbing are brought
together by the command @kbd{C-c @key{TAB}} (@code{picture-set-tab-stops}).
This command sets the tab stops to the positions which @kbd{M-@key{TAB}}
would consider significant in the current line. The use of this command,
together with @key{TAB}, can get the effect of context-based tabbing. But
@kbd{M-@key{TAB}} is more convenient in the cases where it is sufficient.
It may be convenient to prevent use of actual tab characters in
pictures. For example, this prevents @kbd{C-x @key{TAB}} from messing
up the picture. You can do this by setting the variable
@code{indent-tabs-mode} to @code{nil}. @xref{Just Spaces}.
@node Rectangles in Picture,, Tabs in Picture, Picture
@section Picture Mode Rectangle Commands
@cindex rectangles and Picture mode
@cindex Picture mode and rectangles
Picture mode defines commands for working on rectangular pieces of the
text in ways that fit with the quarter-plane model. The standard rectangle
commands may also be useful (@pxref{Rectangles}).
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-k
Clear out the region-rectangle with spaces
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle}). With argument, delete the text.
@item C-c C-w @var{r}
Similar but save rectangle contents in register @var{r} first
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle-to-register}).
@item C-c C-y
Copy last killed rectangle into the buffer by overwriting, with upper
left corner at point (@code{picture-yank-rectangle}). With argument,
insert instead.
@item C-c C-x @var{r}
Similar, but use the rectangle in register @var{r}
(@code{picture-yank-rectangle-from-register}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-k @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c C-w @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-clear-rectangle
@findex picture-clear-rectangle-to-register
The picture rectangle commands @kbd{C-c C-k}
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle}) and @kbd{C-c C-w}
(@code{picture-clear-rectangle-to-register}) differ from the standard
rectangle commands in that they normally clear the rectangle instead of
deleting it; this is analogous with the way @kbd{C-d} is changed in Picture
mode.
However, deletion of rectangles can be useful in Picture mode, so
these commands delete the rectangle if given a numeric argument.
@kbd{C-c C-k} either with or without a numeric argument saves the
rectangle for @kbd{C-c C-y}.
@kindex C-c C-y @r{(Picture mode)}
@kindex C-c C-x @r{(Picture mode)}
@findex picture-yank-rectangle
@findex picture-yank-rectangle-from-register
The Picture mode commands for yanking rectangles differ from the
standard ones in overwriting instead of inserting. This is the same way
that Picture mode insertion of other text differs from other modes.
@kbd{C-c C-y} (@code{picture-yank-rectangle}) inserts (by overwriting)
the rectangle that was most recently killed, while @kbd{C-c C-x}
(@code{picture-yank-rectangle-from-register}) does likewise for the
rectangle found in a specified register.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Registers, Display, Rectangles, Top
@chapter Registers
@cindex registers
Emacs @dfn{registers} are places you can save text or positions for
later use. Once you save text or a rectangle in a register, you can
copy it into the buffer once or many times; you can move point to a
position saved in a register once or many times.
@findex view-register
Each register has a name which is a single character. A register can
store a piece of text, a rectangle, a position, a window configuration,
or a file name, but only one thing at any given time. Whatever you
store in a register remains there until you store something else in that
register. To see what a register @var{r} contains, use @kbd{M-x
view-register}.
@table @kbd
@item M-x view-register @key{RET} @var{r}
Display a description of what register @var{r} contains.
@end table
@menu
* Position: RegPos. Saving positions in registers.
* Text: RegText. Saving text in registers.
* Rectangle: RegRect. Saving rectangles in registers.
* Configurations: RegConfig. Saving window configurations in registers.
* Files: RegFiles. File names in registers.
* Numbers: RegNumbers. Numbers in registers.
* Bookmarks:: Bookmarks are like registers, but persistent.
@end menu
@node RegPos
@section Saving Positions in Registers
Saving a position records a place in a buffer so that you can move
back there later. Moving to a saved position switches to that buffer
and moves point to that place in it.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r @key{SPC} @var{r}
Save position of point in register @var{r} (@code{point-to-register}).
@item C-x r j @var{r}
Jump to the position saved in register @var{r} (@code{jump-to-register}).
@end table
@kindex C-x r SPC
@findex point-to-register
To save the current position of point in a register, choose a name
@var{r} and type @kbd{C-x r @key{SPC} @var{r}}. The register @var{r}
retains the position thus saved until you store something else in that
register.
@kindex C-x r j
@findex jump-to-register
The command @kbd{C-x r j @var{r}} moves point to the position recorded
in register @var{r}. The register is not affected; it continues to
record the same position. You can jump to the saved position any number
of times.
If you use @kbd{C-x r j} to go to a saved position, but the buffer it
was saved from has been killed, @kbd{C-x r j} tries to create the buffer
again by visiting the same file. Of course, this works only for buffers
that were visiting files.
@node RegText
@section Saving Text in Registers
When you want to insert a copy of the same piece of text several
times, it may be inconvenient to yank it from the kill ring, since each
subsequent kill moves that entry further down the ring. An alternative
is to store the text in a register and later retrieve it.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r s @var{r}
Copy region into register @var{r} (@code{copy-to-register}).
@item C-x r i @var{r}
Insert text from register @var{r} (@code{insert-register}).
@end table
@kindex C-x r s
@kindex C-x r i
@findex copy-to-register
@findex insert-register
@kbd{C-x r s @var{r}} stores a copy of the text of the region into the
register named @var{r}. Given a numeric argument, @kbd{C-x r s @var{r}}
deletes the text from the buffer as well.
@kbd{C-x r i @var{r}} inserts in the buffer the text from register
@var{r}. Normally it leaves point before the text and places the mark
after, but with a numeric argument (@kbd{C-u}) it puts point after the
text and the mark before.
@node RegRect
@section Saving Rectangles in Registers
A register can contain a rectangle instead of linear text. The
rectangle is represented as a list of strings. @xref{Rectangles}, for
basic information on how to specify a rectangle in the buffer.
@table @kbd
@findex copy-rectangle-to-register
@kindex C-x r r
@item C-x r r @var{r}
Copy the region-rectangle into register @var{r}
(@code{copy-rectangle-to-register}). With numeric argument, delete it as
well.
@item C-x r i @var{r}
Insert the rectangle stored in register @var{r} (if it contains a
rectangle) (@code{insert-register}).
@end table
The @kbd{C-x r i @var{r}} command inserts a text string if the
register contains one, and inserts a rectangle if the register contains
one.
See also the command @code{sort-columns}, which you can think of
as sorting a rectangle. @xref{Sorting}.
@node RegConfig
@section Saving Window Configurations in Registers
@findex window-configuration-to-register
@findex frame-configuration-to-register
@kindex C-x r w
@kindex C-x r f
You can save the window configuration of the selected frame in a
register, or even the configuration of all windows in all frames, and
restore the configuration later.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r w @var{r}
Save the state of the selected frame's windows in register @var{r}
(@code{window-configuration-to-register}).
@item C-x r f @var{r}
Save the state of all frames, including all their windows, in register
@var{r} (@code{frame-configuration-to-register}).
@end table
Use @kbd{C-x r j @var{r}} to restore a window or frame configuration.
This is the same command used to restore a cursor position. When you
restore a frame configuration, any existing frames not included in the
configuration become invisible. If you wish to delete these frames
instead, use @kbd{C-u C-x r j @var{r}}.
@node RegNumbers
@section Keeping Numbers in Registers
There are commands to store a number in a register, to insert
the number in the buffer in decimal, and to increment it. These commands
can be useful in keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard Macros}).
@table @kbd
@item C-u @var{number} C-x r n @var{reg}
@kindex C-x r n
@findex number-to-register
Store @var{number} into register @var{reg} (@code{number-to-register}).
@item C-u @var{number} C-x r + @var{reg}
@kindex C-x r +
@findex increment-register
Increment the number in register @var{reg} by @var{number}
(@code{increment-register}).
@item C-x r g @var{reg}
Insert the number from register @var{reg} into the buffer.
@end table
@kbd{C-x r g} is the same command used to insert any other
sort of register contents into the buffer.
@node RegFiles
@section Keeping File Names in Registers
If you visit certain file names frequently, you can visit them more
conveniently if you put their names in registers. Here's the Lisp code
used to put a file name in a register:
@smallexample
(set-register ?@var{r} '(file . @var{name}))
@end smallexample
@need 3000
@noindent
For example,
@smallexample
(set-register ?z '(file . "/gd/gnu/emacs/19.0/src/ChangeLog"))
@end smallexample
@noindent
puts the file name shown in register @samp{z}.
To visit the file whose name is in register @var{r}, type @kbd{C-x r j
@var{r}}. (This is the same command used to jump to a position or
restore a frame configuration.)
@node Bookmarks
@section Bookmarks
@cindex bookmarks
@dfn{Bookmarks} are somewhat like registers in that they record
positions you can jump to. Unlike registers, they have long names, and
they persist automatically from one Emacs session to the next. The
prototypical use of bookmarks is to record ``where you were reading'' in
various files.
@table @kbd
@item C-x r m @key{RET}
Set the bookmark for the visited file, at point.
@item C-x r m @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-set
Set the bookmark named @var{bookmark} at point (@code{bookmark-set}).
@item C-x r b @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-jump
Jump to the bookmark named @var{bookmark} (@code{bookmark-jump}).
@item C-x r l
@findex list-bookmarks
List all bookmarks (@code{list-bookmarks}).
@item M-x bookmark-save
@findex bookmark-save
Save all the current bookmark values in the default bookmark file.
@end table
@kindex C-x r m
@findex bookmark-set
@kindex C-x r b
@findex bookmark-jump
The prototypical use for bookmarks is to record one current position
in each of several files. So the command @kbd{C-x r m}, which sets a
bookmark, uses the visited file name as the default for the bookmark
name. If you name each bookmark after the file it points to, then you
can conveniently revisit any of those files with @kbd{C-x r b}, and move
to the position of the bookmark at the same time.
@kindex C-x r l
To display a list of all your bookmarks in a separate buffer, type
@kbd{C-x r l} (@code{list-bookmarks}). If you switch to that buffer,
you can use it to edit your bookmark definitions or annotate the
bookmarks. Type @kbd{C-h m} in that buffer for more information about
its special editing commands.
When you kill Emacs, Emacs offers to save your bookmark values in your
default bookmark file, @file{~/.emacs.bmk}, if you have changed any
bookmark values. You can also save the bookmarks at any time with the
@kbd{M-x bookmark-save} command. The bookmark commands load your
default bookmark file automatically. This saving and loading is how
bookmarks persist from one Emacs session to the next.
@vindex bookmark-save-flag
If you set the variable @code{bookmark-save-flag} to 1, then each
command that sets a bookmark will also save your bookmarks; this way,
you don't lose any bookmark values even if Emacs crashes. (The value,
if a number, says how many bookmark modifications should go by between
saving.)
@vindex bookmark-search-size
Bookmark position values are saved with surrounding context, so that
@code{bookmark-jump} can find the proper position even if the file is
modified slightly. The variable @code{bookmark-search-size} says how
many characters of context to record, on each side of the bookmark's
position.
Here are some additional commands for working with bookmarks:
@table @kbd
@item M-x bookmark-load @key{RET} @var{filename} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-load
Load a file named @var{filename} that contains a list of bookmark
values. You can use this command, as well as @code{bookmark-write}, to
work with other files of bookmark values in addition to your default
bookmark file.
@item M-x bookmark-write @key{RET} @var{filename} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-write
Save all the current bookmark values in the file @var{filename}.
@item M-x bookmark-delete @key{RET} @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-delete
Delete the bookmark named @var{bookmark}.
@item M-x bookmark-insert-location @key{RET} @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-insert-location
Insert in the buffer the name of the file that bookmark @var{bookmark}
points to.
@item M-x bookmark-insert @key{RET} @var{bookmark} @key{RET}
@findex bookmark-insert
Insert in the buffer the @emph{contents} of the file that bookmark
@var{bookmark} points to.
@end table

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Screen, User Input, Acknowledgments, Top
@chapter The Organization of the Screen
@cindex screen
@cindex parts of the screen
@c
On a text-only terminal, the Emacs display occupies the whole screen.
On the X Window System, Emacs creates its own X windows to use. We use
the term @dfn{frame} to mean an entire text-only screen or an entire X
window used by Emacs. Emacs uses both kinds of frames in the same way
to display your editing. Emacs normally starts out with just one frame,
but you can create additional frames if you wish. @xref{Frames}.
When you start Emacs, the entire frame except for the first and last
lines is devoted to the text you are editing. This area is called the
@dfn{window}. The first line is a @dfn{menu bar}, and the last line is
a special @dfn{echo area} or @dfn{minibuffer window} where prompts
appear and where you can enter responses. See below for more
information about these special lines.
You can subdivide the large text window horizontally or vertically
into multiple text windows, each of which can be used for a different
file (@pxref{Windows}). In this manual, the word ``window'' always
refers to the subdivisions of a frame within Emacs.
The window that the cursor is in is the @dfn{selected window}, in
which editing takes place. Most Emacs commands implicitly apply to the
text in the selected window (though mouse commands generally operate on
whatever window you click them in, whether selected or not). The other
windows display text for reference only, unless/until you select them.
If you use multiple frames under the X Window System, then giving the
input focus to a particular frame selects a window in that frame.
Each window's last line is a @dfn{mode line}, which describes what is
going on in that window. It appears in inverse video, if the terminal
supports that, and its contents begin with @w{@samp{--:-- @ *scratch*}}
when Emacs starts. The mode line displays status information such as
what buffer is being displayed above it in the window, what major and
minor modes are in use, and whether the buffer contains unsaved changes.
@menu
* Point:: The place in the text where editing commands operate.
* Echo Area:: Short messages appear at the bottom of the screen.
* Mode Line:: Interpreting the mode line.
* Menu Bar:: How to use the menu bar.
@end menu
@node Point
@section Point
@cindex point
@cindex cursor
Within Emacs, the terminal's cursor shows the location at which
editing commands will take effect. This location is called @dfn{point}.
Many Emacs commands move point through the text, so that you can edit at
different places in it. You can also place point by clicking mouse
button 1.
While the cursor appears to point @emph{at} a character, you should
think of point as @emph{between} two characters; it points @emph{before}
the character that appears under the cursor. For example, if your text
looks like @samp{frob} with the cursor over the @samp{b}, then point is
between the @samp{o} and the @samp{b}. If you insert the character
@samp{!} at that position, the result is @samp{fro!b}, with point
between the @samp{!} and the @samp{b}. Thus, the cursor remains over
the @samp{b}, as before.
Sometimes people speak of ``the cursor'' when they mean ``point,'' or
speak of commands that move point as ``cursor motion'' commands.
Terminals have only one cursor, and when output is in progress it must
appear where the typing is being done. This does not mean that point is
moving. It is only that Emacs has no way to show you the location of point
except when the terminal is idle.
If you are editing several files in Emacs, each in its own buffer,
each buffer has its own point location. A buffer that is not currently
displayed remembers where point is in case you display it again later.
When there are multiple windows in a frame, each window has its own
point location. The cursor shows the location of point in the selected
window. This also is how you can tell which window is selected. If the
same buffer appears in more than one window, each window has its own
position for point in that buffer.
When there are multiple frames, each frame can display one cursor.
The cursor in the selected frame is solid; the cursor in other frames is
a hollow box, and appears in the window that would be selected if you
give the input focus to that frame.
The term `point' comes from the character @samp{.}, which was the
command in TECO (the language in which the original Emacs was written)
for accessing the value now called `point'.
@node Echo Area
@section The Echo Area
@cindex echo area
@c
The line at the bottom of the frame (below the mode line) is the
@dfn{echo area}. It is used to display small amounts of text for
several purposes.
@dfn{Echoing} means displaying the characters that you type. Outside
Emacs, the operating system normally echoes all your input. Emacs
handles echoing differently.
Single-character commands do not echo in Emacs, and multi-character
commands echo only if you pause while typing them. As soon as you pause
for more than a second in the middle of a command, Emacs echoes all the
characters of the command so far. This is to @dfn{prompt} you for the
rest of the command. Once echoing has started, the rest of the command
echoes immediately as you type it. This behavior is designed to give
confident users fast response, while giving hesitant users maximum
feedback. You can change this behavior by setting a variable
(@pxref{Display Vars}).
@cindex error message in the echo area
If a command cannot be executed, it may print an @dfn{error message} in
the echo area. Error messages are accompanied by a beep or by flashing the
screen. Also, any input you have typed ahead is thrown away when an error
happens.
Some commands print informative messages in the echo area. These
messages look much like error messages, but they are not announced with
a beep and do not throw away input. Sometimes the message tells you
what the command has done, when this is not obvious from looking at the
text being edited. Sometimes the sole purpose of a command is to print
a message giving you specific information---for example, @kbd{C-x =}
prints a message describing the character position of point in the text
and its current column in the window. Commands that take a long time
often display messages ending in @samp{...} while they are working, and
add @samp{done} at the end when they are finished.
@cindex @samp{*Messages*} buffer
@cindex saved echo area messages
@cindex messages saved from echo area
Echo-area informative messages are saved in an editor buffer named
@samp{*Messages*}. (We have not explained buffers yet; see
@ref{Buffers}, for more information about them.) If you miss a message
that appears briefly on the screen, you can switch to the
@samp{*Messages*} buffer to see it again. (Successive progress messages
are often collapsed into one in that buffer.)
@vindex message-log-max
The size of @samp{*Messages*} is limited to a certain number of lines.
The variable @code{message-log-max} specifies how many lines. Once the
buffer has that many lines, each line added at the end deletes one line
from the beginning. @xref{Variables}, for how to set variables such as
@code{message-log-max}.
The echo area is also used to display the @dfn{minibuffer}, a window that
is used for reading arguments to commands, such as the name of a file to be
edited. When the minibuffer is in use, the echo area begins with a prompt
string that usually ends with a colon; also, the cursor appears in that line
because it is the selected window. You can always get out of the
minibuffer by typing @kbd{C-g}. @xref{Minibuffer}.
@node Mode Line
@section The Mode Line
@cindex mode line
@cindex top level
@c
Each text window's last line is a @dfn{mode line}, which describes what
is going on in that window. When there is only one text window, the
mode line appears right above the echo area; it is the next-to-last line
on the frame. The mode line is in inverse video if the terminal
supports that, and it starts and ends with dashes.
Normally, the mode line looks like this:
@example
-@var{cs}:@var{ch} @var{buf} (@var{major} @var{minor})--@var{line}--@var{pos}------
@end example
@noindent
This gives information about the buffer being displayed in the window: the
buffer's name, what major and minor modes are in use, whether the buffer's
text has been changed, and how far down the buffer you are currently
looking.
@var{ch} contains two stars @samp{**} if the text in the buffer has
been edited (the buffer is ``modified''), or @samp{--} if the buffer has
not been edited. For a read-only buffer, it is @samp{%*} if the buffer
is modified, and @samp{%%} otherwise.
@var{buf} is the name of the window's @dfn{buffer}. In most cases
this is the same as the name of a file you are editing. @xref{Buffers}.
The buffer displayed in the selected window (the window that the
cursor is in) is also Emacs's selected buffer, the one that editing
takes place in. When we speak of what some command does to ``the
buffer,'' we are talking about the currently selected buffer.
@var{line} is @samp{L} followed by the current line number of point.
This is present when Line Number mode is enabled (which it normally is).
You can optionally display the current column number too, by turning on
Column Number mode (which is not enabled by default because it is
somewhat slower). @xref{Optional Mode Line}.
@var{pos} tells you whether there is additional text above the top of
the window, or below the bottom. If your buffer is small and it is all
visible in the window, @var{pos} is @samp{All}. Otherwise, it is
@samp{Top} if you are looking at the beginning of the buffer, @samp{Bot}
if you are looking at the end of the buffer, or @samp{@var{nn}%}, where
@var{nn} is the percentage of the buffer above the top of the
window.@refill
@var{major} is the name of the @dfn{major mode} in effect in the
buffer. At any time, each buffer is in one and only one of the possible
major modes. The major modes available include Fundamental mode (the
least specialized), Text mode, Lisp mode, C mode, Texinfo mode, and many
others. @xref{Major Modes}, for details of how the modes differ and how
to select one.@refill
Some major modes display additional information after the major mode
name. For example, Rmail buffers display the current message number and
the total number of messages. Compilation buffers and Shell buffers
display the status of the subprocess.
@var{minor} is a list of some of the @dfn{minor modes} that are turned
on at the moment in the window's chosen buffer. For example,
@samp{Fill} means that Auto Fill mode is on. @samp{Abbrev} means that
Word Abbrev mode is on. @samp{Ovwrt} means that Overwrite mode is on.
@xref{Minor Modes}, for more information. @samp{Narrow} means that the
buffer being displayed has editing restricted to only a portion of its
text. This is not really a minor mode, but is like one.
@xref{Narrowing}. @samp{Def} means that a keyboard macro is being
defined. @xref{Keyboard Macros}.
In addition, if Emacs is currently inside a recursive editing level,
square brackets (@samp{[@dots{}]}) appear around the parentheses that
surround the modes. If Emacs is in one recursive editing level within
another, double square brackets appear, and so on. Since recursive
editing levels affect Emacs globally, not just one buffer, the square
brackets appear in every window's mode line or not in any of them.
@xref{Recursive Edit}.@refill
Non-windowing terminals can only show a single Emacs frame at a time
(@pxref{Frames}). On such terminals, the mode line displays the name of
the selected frame, after @var{ch}. The initial frame's name is
@samp{F1}.
@var{cs} states the coding system used for the file you are editing.
A dash indicates the default state of affairs: no code conversion,
except for end-of-line translation if the file contents call for that.
@samp{=} means no conversion whatsoever. Nontrivial code conversions
are represented by various letters---for example, @samp{1} refers to ISO
Latin-1. @xref{Coding Systems}, for more information. If you are using
an input method, a string of the form @samp{@var{i}>} is added to the
beginning of @var{cs}; @var{i} identifies the input method. (Some input
methods show @samp{+} or @samp{@@} instead of @samp{>}.) @xref{Input
Methods}.
When you are using a character-only terminal (not a window system),
@var{cs} uses three characters to describe, respectively, the coding
system for keyboard input, the coding system for terminal output, and
the coding system used for the file you are editing.
When multibyte characters are not enabled, @var{cs} does not appear at
all. @xref{Enabling Multibyte}.
@cindex end-of-line conversion, mode-line indication
The colon after @var{cs} can change to another string in certain
circumstances. Emacs uses newline to separate lines in the buffer.
Some files use different conventions for separating lines: either
carriage-return linefeed (the MS-DOS convention) or just carriage-return
(the Macintosh convention). If the buffer's file uses carriage-return
linefeed, the colon changes to either a backslash (@samp{\}) or
@samp{(DOS)}, depending on the operating system. If the file uses just
carriage-return, the colon indicator changes to either a forward slash
(@samp{/}) or @samp{(Mac)}. On some systems, Emacs displays
@samp{(Unix)} instead of the colon even for files that use newline to
separate lines.
@vindex eol-mnemonic-unix
@vindex eol-mnemonic-dos
@vindex eol-mnemonic-mac
@vindex eol-mnemonic-undecided
You can customize the mode line display for each of the end-of-line
formats by setting each of the variables @code{eol-mnemonic-unix},
@code{eol-mnemonic-dos}, @code{eol-mnemonic-mac}, and
@code{eol-mnemonic-undecided} to any string you find appropriate.
@xref{Variables}, for an explanation how to set variables.
@xref{Optional Mode Line}, for features that add other handy
information to the mode line, such as the current column number of
point, the current time, and whether new mail for you has arrived.
@node Menu Bar
@section The Menu Bar
@cindex menu bar
Each Emacs frame normally has a @dfn{menu bar} at the top which you
can use to perform certain common operations. There's no need to list
them here, as you can more easily see for yourself.
@kindex M-`
@kindex F10
@findex tmm-menubar
When you are using a window system, you can use the mouse to choose a
command from the menu bar. An arrow pointing right, after the menu
item, indicates that the item leads to a subsidiary menu; @samp{...} at
the end means that the command will read arguments from the keyboard
before it actually does anything.
To view the full command name and documentation for a menu item, type
@kbd{C-h k}, and then select the menu bar with the mouse in the usual
way (@pxref{Key Help}).
On text-only terminals with no mouse, you can use the menu bar by
typing @kbd{M-`} or @key{F10} (these run the command
@code{tmm-menubar}). This command enters a mode in which you can select
a menu item from the keyboard. A provisional choice appears in the echo
area. You can use the left and right arrow keys to move through the
menu to different choices. When you have found the choice you want,
type @key{RET} to select it.
Each menu item also has an assigned letter or digit which designates
that item; it is usually the initial of some word in the item's name.
This letter or digit is separated from the item name by @samp{=>}. You
can type the item's letter or digit to select the item.
Some of the commands in the menu bar have ordinary key bindings as
well; if so, the menu lists one equivalent key binding in parentheses
after the item itself.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Search, Fixit, Display, Top
@chapter Searching and Replacement
@cindex searching
@cindex finding strings within text
Like other editors, Emacs has commands for searching for occurrences of
a string. The principal search command is unusual in that it is
@dfn{incremental}; it begins to search before you have finished typing the
search string. There are also nonincremental search commands more like
those of other editors.
Besides the usual @code{replace-string} command that finds all
occurrences of one string and replaces them with another, Emacs has a fancy
replacement command called @code{query-replace} which asks interactively
which occurrences to replace.
@menu
* Incremental Search:: Search happens as you type the string.
* Nonincremental Search:: Specify entire string and then search.
* Word Search:: Search for sequence of words.
* Regexp Search:: Search for match for a regexp.
* Regexps:: Syntax of regular expressions.
* Search Case:: To ignore case while searching, or not.
* Replace:: Search, and replace some or all matches.
* Other Repeating Search:: Operating on all matches for some regexp.
@end menu
@node Incremental Search, Nonincremental Search, Search, Search
@section Incremental Search
@cindex incremental search
An incremental search begins searching as soon as you type the first
character of the search string. As you type in the search string, Emacs
shows you where the string (as you have typed it so far) would be
found. When you have typed enough characters to identify the place you
want, you can stop. Depending on what you plan to do next, you may or
may not need to terminate the search explicitly with @key{RET}.
@c WideCommands
@table @kbd
@item C-s
Incremental search forward (@code{isearch-forward}).
@item C-r
Incremental search backward (@code{isearch-backward}).
@end table
@kindex C-s
@findex isearch-forward
@kbd{C-s} starts an incremental search. @kbd{C-s} reads characters from
the keyboard and positions the cursor at the first occurrence of the
characters that you have typed. If you type @kbd{C-s} and then @kbd{F},
the cursor moves right after the first @samp{F}. Type an @kbd{O}, and see
the cursor move to after the first @samp{FO}. After another @kbd{O}, the
cursor is after the first @samp{FOO} after the place where you started the
search. At each step, the buffer text that matches the search string is
highlighted, if the terminal can do that; at each step, the current search
string is updated in the echo area.
If you make a mistake in typing the search string, you can cancel
characters with @key{DEL}. Each @key{DEL} cancels the last character of
search string. This does not happen until Emacs is ready to read another
input character; first it must either find, or fail to find, the character
you want to erase. If you do not want to wait for this to happen, use
@kbd{C-g} as described below.
When you are satisfied with the place you have reached, you can type
@key{RET}, which stops searching, leaving the cursor where the search
brought it. Also, any command not specially meaningful in searches
stops the searching and is then executed. Thus, typing @kbd{C-a} would
exit the search and then move to the beginning of the line. @key{RET}
is necessary only if the next command you want to type is a printing
character, @key{DEL}, @key{RET}, or another control character that is
special within searches (@kbd{C-q}, @kbd{C-w}, @kbd{C-r}, @kbd{C-s},
@kbd{C-y}, @kbd{M-y}, @kbd{M-r}, or @kbd{M-s}).
Sometimes you search for @samp{FOO} and find it, but not the one you
expected to find. There was a second @samp{FOO} that you forgot about,
before the one you were aiming for. In this event, type another @kbd{C-s}
to move to the next occurrence of the search string. This can be done any
number of times. If you overshoot, you can cancel some @kbd{C-s}
characters with @key{DEL}.
After you exit a search, you can search for the same string again by
typing just @kbd{C-s C-s}: the first @kbd{C-s} is the key that invokes
incremental search, and the second @kbd{C-s} means ``search again.''
To reuse earlier search strings, use the @dfn{search ring}. The
commands @kbd{M-p} and @kbd{M-n} move through the ring to pick a search
string to reuse. These commands leave the selected search ring element
in the minibuffer, where you can edit it. Type @kbd{C-s} or @kbd{C-r}
to terminate editing the string and search for it.
If your string is not found at all, the echo area says @samp{Failing
I-Search}. The cursor is after the place where Emacs found as much of your
string as it could. Thus, if you search for @samp{FOOT}, and there is no
@samp{FOOT}, you might see the cursor after the @samp{FOO} in @samp{FOOL}.
At this point there are several things you can do. If your string was
mistyped, you can rub some of it out and correct it. If you like the place
you have found, you can type @key{RET} or some other Emacs command to
``accept what the search offered.'' Or you can type @kbd{C-g}, which
removes from the search string the characters that could not be found (the
@samp{T} in @samp{FOOT}), leaving those that were found (the @samp{FOO} in
@samp{FOOT}). A second @kbd{C-g} at that point cancels the search
entirely, returning point to where it was when the search started.
An upper-case letter in the search string makes the search
case-sensitive. If you delete the upper-case character from the search
string, it ceases to have this effect. @xref{Search Case}.
If a search is failing and you ask to repeat it by typing another
@kbd{C-s}, it starts again from the beginning of the buffer. Repeating
a failing reverse search with @kbd{C-r} starts again from the end. This
is called @dfn{wrapping around}. @samp{Wrapped} appears in the search
prompt once this has happened. If you keep on going past the original
starting point of the search, it changes to @samp{Overwrapped}, which
means that you are revisiting matches that you have already seen.
@cindex quitting (in search)
The @kbd{C-g} ``quit'' character does special things during searches;
just what it does depends on the status of the search. If the search has
found what you specified and is waiting for input, @kbd{C-g} cancels the
entire search. The cursor moves back to where you started the search. If
@kbd{C-g} is typed when there are characters in the search string that have
not been found---because Emacs is still searching for them, or because it
has failed to find them---then the search string characters which have not
been found are discarded from the search string. With them gone, the
search is now successful and waiting for more input, so a second @kbd{C-g}
will cancel the entire search.
To search for a newline, type @kbd{C-j}. To search for another
control character, such as control-S or carriage return, you must quote
it by typing @kbd{C-q} first. This function of @kbd{C-q} is analogous
to its use for insertion (@pxref{Inserting Text}): it causes the
following character to be treated the way any ``ordinary'' character is
treated in the same context. You can also specify a character by its
octal code: enter @kbd{C-q} followed by a sequence of octal digits.
You can change to searching backwards with @kbd{C-r}. If a search fails
because the place you started was too late in the file, you should do this.
Repeated @kbd{C-r} keeps looking for more occurrences backwards. A
@kbd{C-s} starts going forwards again. @kbd{C-r} in a search can be canceled
with @key{DEL}.
@kindex C-r
@findex isearch-backward
If you know initially that you want to search backwards, you can use
@kbd{C-r} instead of @kbd{C-s} to start the search, because @kbd{C-r} as
a key runs a command (@code{isearch-backward}) to search backward. A
backward search finds matches that are entirely before the starting
point, just as a forward search finds matches that begin after it.
The characters @kbd{C-y} and @kbd{C-w} can be used in incremental
search to grab text from the buffer into the search string. This makes
it convenient to search for another occurrence of text at point.
@kbd{C-w} copies the word after point as part of the search string,
advancing point over that word. Another @kbd{C-s} to repeat the search
will then search for a string including that word. @kbd{C-y} is similar
to @kbd{C-w} but copies all the rest of the current line into the search
string. Both @kbd{C-y} and @kbd{C-w} convert the text they copy to
lower case if the search is currently not case-sensitive; this is so the
search remains case-insensitive.
The character @kbd{M-y} copies text from the kill ring into the search
string. It uses the same text that @kbd{C-y} as a command would yank.
@xref{Yanking}.
When you exit the incremental search, it sets the mark to where point
@emph{was}, before the search. That is convenient for moving back
there. In Transient Mark mode, incremental search sets the mark without
activating it, and does so only if the mark is not already active.
@vindex isearch-mode-map
To customize the special characters that incremental search understands,
alter their bindings in the keymap @code{isearch-mode-map}. For a list
of bindings, look at the documentation of @code{isearch-mode} with
@kbd{C-h f isearch-mode @key{RET}}.
@subsection Slow Terminal Incremental Search
Incremental search on a slow terminal uses a modified style of display
that is designed to take less time. Instead of redisplaying the buffer at
each place the search gets to, it creates a new single-line window and uses
that to display the line that the search has found. The single-line window
comes into play as soon as point gets outside of the text that is already
on the screen.
When you terminate the search, the single-line window is removed.
Then Emacs redisplays the window in which the search was done, to show
its new position of point.
@ignore
The three dots at the end of the search string, normally used to indicate
that searching is going on, are not displayed in slow style display.
@end ignore
@vindex search-slow-speed
The slow terminal style of display is used when the terminal baud rate is
less than or equal to the value of the variable @code{search-slow-speed},
initially 1200.
@vindex search-slow-window-lines
The number of lines to use in slow terminal search display is controlled
by the variable @code{search-slow-window-lines}. Its normal value is 1.
@node Nonincremental Search, Word Search, Incremental Search, Search
@section Nonincremental Search
@cindex nonincremental search
Emacs also has conventional nonincremental search commands, which require
you to type the entire search string before searching begins.
@table @kbd
@item C-s @key{RET} @var{string} @key{RET}
Search for @var{string}.
@item C-r @key{RET} @var{string} @key{RET}
Search backward for @var{string}.
@end table
To do a nonincremental search, first type @kbd{C-s @key{RET}}. This
enters the minibuffer to read the search string; terminate the string
with @key{RET}, and then the search takes place. If the string is not
found, the search command gets an error.
The way @kbd{C-s @key{RET}} works is that the @kbd{C-s} invokes
incremental search, which is specially programmed to invoke nonincremental
search if the argument you give it is empty. (Such an empty argument would
otherwise be useless.) @kbd{C-r @key{RET}} also works this way.
However, nonincremental searches performed using @kbd{C-s @key{RET}} do
not call @code{search-forward} right away. The first thing done is to see
if the next character is @kbd{C-w}, which requests a word search.
@ifinfo
@xref{Word Search}.
@end ifinfo
@findex search-forward
@findex search-backward
Forward and backward nonincremental searches are implemented by the
commands @code{search-forward} and @code{search-backward}. These
commands may be bound to keys in the usual manner. The feature that you
can get to them via the incremental search commands exists for
historical reasons, and to avoid the need to find suitable key sequences
for them.
@node Word Search, Regexp Search, Nonincremental Search, Search
@section Word Search
@cindex word search
Word search searches for a sequence of words without regard to how the
words are separated. More precisely, you type a string of many words,
using single spaces to separate them, and the string can be found even if
there are multiple spaces, newlines or other punctuation between the words.
Word search is useful for editing a printed document made with a text
formatter. If you edit while looking at the printed, formatted version,
you can't tell where the line breaks are in the source file. With word
search, you can search without having to know them.
@table @kbd
@item C-s @key{RET} C-w @var{words} @key{RET}
Search for @var{words}, ignoring details of punctuation.
@item C-r @key{RET} C-w @var{words} @key{RET}
Search backward for @var{words}, ignoring details of punctuation.
@end table
Word search is a special case of nonincremental search and is invoked
with @kbd{C-s @key{RET} C-w}. This is followed by the search string,
which must always be terminated with @key{RET}. Being nonincremental,
this search does not start until the argument is terminated. It works
by constructing a regular expression and searching for that; see
@ref{Regexp Search}.
Use @kbd{C-r @key{RET} C-w} to do backward word search.
@findex word-search-forward
@findex word-search-backward
Forward and backward word searches are implemented by the commands
@code{word-search-forward} and @code{word-search-backward}. These
commands may be bound to keys in the usual manner. The feature that you
can get to them via the incremental search commands exists for historical
reasons, and to avoid the need to find suitable key sequences for them.
@node Regexp Search, Regexps, Word Search, Search
@section Regular Expression Search
@cindex regular expression
@cindex regexp
A @dfn{regular expression} (@dfn{regexp}, for short) is a pattern that
denotes a class of alternative strings to match, possibly infinitely
many. In GNU Emacs, you can search for the next match for a regexp
either incrementally or not.
@kindex C-M-s
@findex isearch-forward-regexp
@kindex C-M-r
@findex isearch-backward-regexp
Incremental search for a regexp is done by typing @kbd{C-M-s}
(@code{isearch-forward-regexp}). This command reads a search string
incrementally just like @kbd{C-s}, but it treats the search string as a
regexp rather than looking for an exact match against the text in the
buffer. Each time you add text to the search string, you make the
regexp longer, and the new regexp is searched for. Invoking @kbd{C-s}
with a prefix argument (its value does not matter) is another way to do
a forward incremental regexp search. To search backward for a regexp,
use @kbd{C-M-r} (@code{isearch-backward-regexp}), or @kbd{C-r} with a
prefix argument.
All of the control characters that do special things within an
ordinary incremental search have the same function in incremental regexp
search. Typing @kbd{C-s} or @kbd{C-r} immediately after starting the
search retrieves the last incremental search regexp used; that is to
say, incremental regexp and non-regexp searches have independent
defaults. They also have separate search rings that you can access with
@kbd{M-p} and @kbd{M-n}.
If you type @key{SPC} in incremental regexp search, it matches any
sequence of whitespace characters, including newlines. If you want
to match just a space, type @kbd{C-q @key{SPC}}.
Note that adding characters to the regexp in an incremental regexp
search can make the cursor move back and start again. For example, if
you have searched for @samp{foo} and you add @samp{\|bar}, the cursor
backs up in case the first @samp{bar} precedes the first @samp{foo}.
@findex re-search-forward
@findex re-search-backward
Nonincremental search for a regexp is done by the functions
@code{re-search-forward} and @code{re-search-backward}. You can invoke
these with @kbd{M-x}, or bind them to keys, or invoke them by way of
incremental regexp search with @kbd{C-M-s @key{RET}} and @kbd{C-M-r
@key{RET}}.
If you use the incremental regexp search commands with a prefix
argument, they perform ordinary string search, like
@code{isearch-forward} and @code{isearch-backward}. @xref{Incremental
Search}.
@node Regexps, Search Case, Regexp Search, Search
@section Syntax of Regular Expressions
@cindex regexp syntax
Regular expressions have a syntax in which a few characters are
special constructs and the rest are @dfn{ordinary}. An ordinary
character is a simple regular expression which matches that same
character and nothing else. The special characters are @samp{$},
@samp{^}, @samp{.}, @samp{*}, @samp{+}, @samp{?}, @samp{[}, @samp{]} and
@samp{\}. Any other character appearing in a regular expression is
ordinary, unless a @samp{\} precedes it.
For example, @samp{f} is not a special character, so it is ordinary, and
therefore @samp{f} is a regular expression that matches the string
@samp{f} and no other string. (It does @emph{not} match the string
@samp{ff}.) Likewise, @samp{o} is a regular expression that matches
only @samp{o}. (When case distinctions are being ignored, these regexps
also match @samp{F} and @samp{O}, but we consider this a generalization
of ``the same string,'' rather than an exception.)
Any two regular expressions @var{a} and @var{b} can be concatenated. The
result is a regular expression which matches a string if @var{a} matches
some amount of the beginning of that string and @var{b} matches the rest of
the string.@refill
As a simple example, we can concatenate the regular expressions @samp{f}
and @samp{o} to get the regular expression @samp{fo}, which matches only
the string @samp{fo}. Still trivial. To do something nontrivial, you
need to use one of the special characters. Here is a list of them.
@table @kbd
@item .@: @r{(Period)}
is a special character that matches any single character except a newline.
Using concatenation, we can make regular expressions like @samp{a.b}, which
matches any three-character string that begins with @samp{a} and ends with
@samp{b}.@refill
@item *
is not a construct by itself; it is a postfix operator that means to
match the preceding regular expression repetitively as many times as
possible. Thus, @samp{o*} matches any number of @samp{o}s (including no
@samp{o}s).
@samp{*} always applies to the @emph{smallest} possible preceding
expression. Thus, @samp{fo*} has a repeating @samp{o}, not a repeating
@samp{fo}. It matches @samp{f}, @samp{fo}, @samp{foo}, and so on.
The matcher processes a @samp{*} construct by matching, immediately,
as many repetitions as can be found. Then it continues with the rest
of the pattern. If that fails, backtracking occurs, discarding some
of the matches of the @samp{*}-modified construct in case that makes
it possible to match the rest of the pattern. For example, in matching
@samp{ca*ar} against the string @samp{caaar}, the @samp{a*} first
tries to match all three @samp{a}s; but the rest of the pattern is
@samp{ar} and there is only @samp{r} left to match, so this try fails.
The next alternative is for @samp{a*} to match only two @samp{a}s.
With this choice, the rest of the regexp matches successfully.@refill
@item +
is a postfix operator, similar to @samp{*} except that it must match
the preceding expression at least once. So, for example, @samp{ca+r}
matches the strings @samp{car} and @samp{caaaar} but not the string
@samp{cr}, whereas @samp{ca*r} matches all three strings.
@item ?
is a postfix operator, similar to @samp{*} except that it can match the
preceding expression either once or not at all. For example,
@samp{ca?r} matches @samp{car} or @samp{cr}; nothing else.
@item [ @dots{} ]
is a @dfn{character set}, which begins with @samp{[} and is terminated
by @samp{]}. In the simplest case, the characters between the two
brackets are what this set can match.
Thus, @samp{[ad]} matches either one @samp{a} or one @samp{d}, and
@samp{[ad]*} matches any string composed of just @samp{a}s and @samp{d}s
(including the empty string), from which it follows that @samp{c[ad]*r}
matches @samp{cr}, @samp{car}, @samp{cdr}, @samp{caddaar}, etc.
You can also include character ranges in a character set, by writing the
starting and ending characters with a @samp{-} between them. Thus,
@samp{[a-z]} matches any lower-case ASCII letter. Ranges may be
intermixed freely with individual characters, as in @samp{[a-z$%.]},
which matches any lower-case ASCII letter or @samp{$}, @samp{%} or
period.
Note that the usual regexp special characters are not special inside a
character set. A completely different set of special characters exists
inside character sets: @samp{]}, @samp{-} and @samp{^}.
To include a @samp{]} in a character set, you must make it the first
character. For example, @samp{[]a]} matches @samp{]} or @samp{a}. To
include a @samp{-}, write @samp{-} as the first or last character of the
set, or put it after a range. Thus, @samp{[]-]} matches both @samp{]}
and @samp{-}.
To include @samp{^} in a set, put it anywhere but at the beginning of
the set.
When you use a range in case-insensitive search, you should write both
ends of the range in upper case, or both in lower case, or both should
be non-letters. The behavior of a mixed-case range such as @samp{A-z}
is somewhat ill-defined, and it may change in future Emacs versions.
@item [^ @dots{} ]
@samp{[^} begins a @dfn{complemented character set}, which matches any
character except the ones specified. Thus, @samp{[^a-z0-9A-Z]} matches
all characters @emph{except} letters and digits.
@samp{^} is not special in a character set unless it is the first
character. The character following the @samp{^} is treated as if it
were first (in other words, @samp{-} and @samp{]} are not special there).
A complemented character set can match a newline, unless newline is
mentioned as one of the characters not to match. This is in contrast to
the handling of regexps in programs such as @code{grep}.
@item ^
is a special character that matches the empty string, but only at the
beginning of a line in the text being matched. Otherwise it fails to
match anything. Thus, @samp{^foo} matches a @samp{foo} that occurs at
the beginning of a line.
@item $
is similar to @samp{^} but matches only at the end of a line. Thus,
@samp{x+$} matches a string of one @samp{x} or more at the end of a line.
@item \
has two functions: it quotes the special characters (including
@samp{\}), and it introduces additional special constructs.
Because @samp{\} quotes special characters, @samp{\$} is a regular
expression that matches only @samp{$}, and @samp{\[} is a regular
expression that matches only @samp{[}, and so on.
@end table
Note: for historical compatibility, special characters are treated as
ordinary ones if they are in contexts where their special meanings make no
sense. For example, @samp{*foo} treats @samp{*} as ordinary since there is
no preceding expression on which the @samp{*} can act. It is poor practice
to depend on this behavior; it is better to quote the special character anyway,
regardless of where it appears.@refill
For the most part, @samp{\} followed by any character matches only that
character. However, there are several exceptions: two-character
sequences starting with @samp{\} that have special meanings. The second
character in the sequence is always an ordinary character when used on
its own. Here is a table of @samp{\} constructs.
@table @kbd
@item \|
specifies an alternative. Two regular expressions @var{a} and @var{b}
with @samp{\|} in between form an expression that matches some text if
either @var{a} matches it or @var{b} matches it. It works by trying to
match @var{a}, and if that fails, by trying to match @var{b}.
Thus, @samp{foo\|bar} matches either @samp{foo} or @samp{bar}
but no other string.@refill
@samp{\|} applies to the largest possible surrounding expressions. Only a
surrounding @samp{\( @dots{} \)} grouping can limit the grouping power of
@samp{\|}.@refill
Full backtracking capability exists to handle multiple uses of @samp{\|}.
@item \( @dots{} \)
is a grouping construct that serves three purposes:
@enumerate
@item
To enclose a set of @samp{\|} alternatives for other operations.
Thus, @samp{\(foo\|bar\)x} matches either @samp{foox} or @samp{barx}.
@item
To enclose a complicated expression for the postfix operators @samp{*},
@samp{+} and @samp{?} to operate on. Thus, @samp{ba\(na\)*} matches
@samp{bananana}, etc., with any (zero or more) number of @samp{na}
strings.@refill
@item
To record a matched substring for future reference.
@end enumerate
This last application is not a consequence of the idea of a
parenthetical grouping; it is a separate feature that is assigned as a
second meaning to the same @samp{\( @dots{} \)} construct. In practice
there is no conflict between the two meanings.
@item \@var{d}
matches the same text that matched the @var{d}th occurrence of a
@samp{\( @dots{} \)} construct.
After the end of a @samp{\( @dots{} \)} construct, the matcher remembers
the beginning and end of the text matched by that construct. Then,
later on in the regular expression, you can use @samp{\} followed by the
digit @var{d} to mean ``match the same text matched the @var{d}th time
by the @samp{\( @dots{} \)} construct.''
The strings matching the first nine @samp{\( @dots{} \)} constructs
appearing in a regular expression are assigned numbers 1 through 9 in
the order that the open-parentheses appear in the regular expression.
So you can use @samp{\1} through @samp{\9} to refer to the text matched
by the corresponding @samp{\( @dots{} \)} constructs.
For example, @samp{\(.*\)\1} matches any newline-free string that is
composed of two identical halves. The @samp{\(.*\)} matches the first
half, which may be anything, but the @samp{\1} that follows must match
the same exact text.
If a particular @samp{\( @dots{} \)} construct matches more than once
(which can easily happen if it is followed by @samp{*}), only the last
match is recorded.
@item \`
matches the empty string, but only at the beginning
of the buffer or string being matched against.
@item \'
matches the empty string, but only at the end of
the buffer or string being matched against.
@item \=
matches the empty string, but only at point.
@item \b
matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or
end of a word. Thus, @samp{\bfoo\b} matches any occurrence of
@samp{foo} as a separate word. @samp{\bballs?\b} matches
@samp{ball} or @samp{balls} as a separate word.@refill
@samp{\b} matches at the beginning or end of the buffer
regardless of what text appears next to it.
@item \B
matches the empty string, but @emph{not} at the beginning or
end of a word.
@item \<
matches the empty string, but only at the beginning of a word.
@samp{\<} matches at the beginning of the buffer only if a
word-constituent character follows.
@item \>
matches the empty string, but only at the end of a word. @samp{\>}
matches at the end of the buffer only if the contents end with a
word-constituent character.
@item \w
matches any word-constituent character. The syntax table
determines which characters these are. @xref{Syntax}.
@item \W
matches any character that is not a word-constituent.
@item \s@var{c}
matches any character whose syntax is @var{c}. Here @var{c} is a
character that represents a syntax code: thus, @samp{w} for word
constituent, @samp{-} for whitespace, @samp{(} for open parenthesis,
etc. Represent a character of whitespace (which can be a newline) by
either @samp{-} or a space character.
@item \S@var{c}
matches any character whose syntax is not @var{c}.
@end table
The constructs that pertain to words and syntax are controlled by the
setting of the syntax table (@pxref{Syntax}).
Here is a complicated regexp, used by Emacs to recognize the end of a
sentence together with any whitespace that follows. It is given in Lisp
syntax to enable you to distinguish the spaces from the tab characters. In
Lisp syntax, the string constant begins and ends with a double-quote.
@samp{\"} stands for a double-quote as part of the regexp, @samp{\\} for a
backslash as part of the regexp, @samp{\t} for a tab and @samp{\n} for a
newline.
@example
"[.?!][]\"')]*\\($\\|\t\\| \\)[ \t\n]*"
@end example
@noindent
This contains four parts in succession: a character set matching period,
@samp{?}, or @samp{!}; a character set matching close-brackets, quotes,
or parentheses, repeated any number of times; an alternative in
backslash-parentheses that matches end-of-line, a tab, or two spaces;
and a character set matching whitespace characters, repeated any number
of times.
To enter the same regexp interactively, you would type @key{TAB} to
enter a tab, and @kbd{C-j} to enter a newline. You would also type
single backslashes as themselves, instead of doubling them for Lisp syntax.
@node Search Case, Replace, Regexps, Search
@section Searching and Case
@vindex case-fold-search
Incremental searches in Emacs normally ignore the case of the text
they are searching through, if you specify the text in lower case.
Thus, if you specify searching for @samp{foo}, then @samp{Foo} and
@samp{foo} are also considered a match. Regexps, and in particular
character sets, are included: @samp{[ab]} would match @samp{a} or
@samp{A} or @samp{b} or @samp{B}.@refill
An upper-case letter anywhere in the incremental search string makes
the search case-sensitive. Thus, searching for @samp{Foo} does not find
@samp{foo} or @samp{FOO}. This applies to regular expression search as
well as to string search. The effect ceases if you delete the
upper-case letter from the search string.
If you set the variable @code{case-fold-search} to @code{nil}, then
all letters must match exactly, including case. This is a per-buffer
variable; altering the variable affects only the current buffer, but
there is a default value which you can change as well. @xref{Locals}.
This variable applies to nonincremental searches also, including those
performed by the replace commands (@pxref{Replace}) and the minibuffer
history matching commands (@pxref{Minibuffer History}).
@node Replace, Other Repeating Search, Search Case, Search
@section Replacement Commands
@cindex replacement
@cindex search-and-replace commands
@cindex string substitution
@cindex global substitution
Global search-and-replace operations are not needed as often in Emacs
as they are in other editors@footnote{In some editors,
search-and-replace operations are the only convenient way to make a
single change in the text.}, but they are available. In addition to the
simple @kbd{M-x replace-string} command which is like that found in most
editors, there is a @kbd{M-x query-replace} command which asks you, for
each occurrence of the pattern, whether to replace it.
The replace commands normally operate on the text from point to the
end of the buffer; however, in Transient Mark mode, when the mark is
active, they operate on the region. The replace commands all replace
one string (or regexp) with one replacement string. It is possible to
perform several replacements in parallel using the command
@code{expand-region-abbrevs} (@pxref{Expanding Abbrevs}).
@menu
* Unconditional Replace:: Replacing all matches for a string.
* Regexp Replace:: Replacing all matches for a regexp.
* Replacement and Case:: How replacements preserve case of letters.
* Query Replace:: How to use querying.
@end menu
@node Unconditional Replace, Regexp Replace, Replace, Replace
@subsection Unconditional Replacement
@findex replace-string
@findex replace-regexp
@table @kbd
@item M-x replace-string @key{RET} @var{string} @key{RET} @var{newstring} @key{RET}
Replace every occurrence of @var{string} with @var{newstring}.
@item M-x replace-regexp @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET} @var{newstring} @key{RET}
Replace every match for @var{regexp} with @var{newstring}.
@end table
To replace every instance of @samp{foo} after point with @samp{bar},
use the command @kbd{M-x replace-string} with the two arguments
@samp{foo} and @samp{bar}. Replacement happens only in the text after
point, so if you want to cover the whole buffer you must go to the
beginning first. All occurrences up to the end of the buffer are
replaced; to limit replacement to part of the buffer, narrow to that
part of the buffer before doing the replacement (@pxref{Narrowing}).
In Transient Mark mode, when the region is active, replacement is
limited to the region (@pxref{Transient Mark}).
When @code{replace-string} exits, it leaves point at the last
occurrence replaced. It sets the mark to the prior position of point
(where the @code{replace-string} command was issued); use @kbd{C-u
C-@key{SPC}} to move back there.
A numeric argument restricts replacement to matches that are surrounded
by word boundaries. The argument's value doesn't matter.
@node Regexp Replace, Replacement and Case, Unconditional Replace, Replace
@subsection Regexp Replacement
The @kbd{M-x replace-string} command replaces exact matches for a
single string. The similar command @kbd{M-x replace-regexp} replaces
any match for a specified pattern.
In @code{replace-regexp}, the @var{newstring} need not be constant: it
can refer to all or part of what is matched by the @var{regexp}.
@samp{\&} in @var{newstring} stands for the entire match being replaced.
@samp{\@var{d}} in @var{newstring}, where @var{d} is a digit, stands for
whatever matched the @var{d}th parenthesized grouping in @var{regexp}.
To include a @samp{\} in the text to replace with, you must enter
@samp{\\}. For example,
@example
M-x replace-regexp @key{RET} c[ad]+r @key{RET} \&-safe @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
replaces (for example) @samp{cadr} with @samp{cadr-safe} and @samp{cddr}
with @samp{cddr-safe}.
@example
M-x replace-regexp @key{RET} \(c[ad]+r\)-safe @key{RET} \1 @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
performs the inverse transformation.
@node Replacement and Case, Query Replace, Regexp Replace, Replace
@subsection Replace Commands and Case
If the first argument of a replace command is all lower case, the
commands ignores case while searching for occurrences to
replace---provided @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. If
@code{case-fold-search} is set to @code{nil}, case is always significant
in all searches.
@vindex case-replace
In addition, when the @var{newstring} argument is all or partly lower
case, replacement commands try to preserve the case pattern of each
occurrence. Thus, the command
@example
M-x replace-string @key{RET} foo @key{RET} bar @key{RET}
@end example
@noindent
replaces a lower case @samp{foo} with a lower case @samp{bar}, an
all-caps @samp{FOO} with @samp{BAR}, and a capitalized @samp{Foo} with
@samp{Bar}. (These three alternatives---lower case, all caps, and
capitalized, are the only ones that @code{replace-string} can
distinguish.)
If upper-case letters are used in the replacement string, they remain
upper case every time that text is inserted. If upper-case letters are
used in the first argument, the second argument is always substituted
exactly as given, with no case conversion. Likewise, if either
@code{case-replace} or @code{case-fold-search} is set to @code{nil},
replacement is done without case conversion.
@node Query Replace,, Replacement and Case, Replace
@subsection Query Replace
@cindex query replace
@table @kbd
@item M-% @var{string} @key{RET} @var{newstring} @key{RET}
@itemx M-x query-replace @key{RET} @var{string} @key{RET} @var{newstring} @key{RET}
Replace some occurrences of @var{string} with @var{newstring}.
@item C-M-% @var{regexp} @key{RET} @var{newstring} @key{RET}
@itemx M-x query-replace-regexp @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET} @var{newstring} @key{RET}
Replace some matches for @var{regexp} with @var{newstring}.
@end table
@kindex M-%
@findex query-replace
If you want to change only some of the occurrences of @samp{foo} to
@samp{bar}, not all of them, then you cannot use an ordinary
@code{replace-string}. Instead, use @kbd{M-%} (@code{query-replace}).
This command finds occurrences of @samp{foo} one by one, displays each
occurrence and asks you whether to replace it. A numeric argument to
@code{query-replace} tells it to consider only occurrences that are
bounded by word-delimiter characters. This preserves case, just like
@code{replace-string}, provided @code{case-replace} is non-@code{nil},
as it normally is.
@kindex C-M-%
@findex query-replace-regexp
Aside from querying, @code{query-replace} works just like
@code{replace-string}, and @code{query-replace-regexp} works just like
@code{replace-regexp}. This command is run by @kbd{C-M-%}.
The things you can type when you are shown an occurrence of @var{string}
or a match for @var{regexp} are:
@ignore @c Not worth it.
@kindex SPC @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex DEL @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex , @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex RET @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex . @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex ! @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex ^ @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex C-r @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex C-w @r{(query-replace)}
@kindex C-l @r{(query-replace)}
@end ignore
@c WideCommands
@table @kbd
@item @key{SPC}
to replace the occurrence with @var{newstring}.
@item @key{DEL}
to skip to the next occurrence without replacing this one.
@item , @r{(Comma)}
to replace this occurrence and display the result. You are then asked
for another input character to say what to do next. Since the
replacement has already been made, @key{DEL} and @key{SPC} are
equivalent in this situation; both move to the next occurrence.
You can type @kbd{C-r} at this point (see below) to alter the replaced
text. You can also type @kbd{C-x u} to undo the replacement; this exits
the @code{query-replace}, so if you want to do further replacement you
must use @kbd{C-x @key{ESC} @key{ESC} @key{RET}} to restart
(@pxref{Repetition}).
@item @key{RET}
to exit without doing any more replacements.
@item .@: @r{(Period)}
to replace this occurrence and then exit without searching for more
occurrences.
@item !
to replace all remaining occurrences without asking again.
@item ^
to go back to the position of the previous occurrence (or what used to
be an occurrence), in case you changed it by mistake. This works by
popping the mark ring. Only one @kbd{^} in a row is meaningful, because
only one previous replacement position is kept during @code{query-replace}.
@item C-r
to enter a recursive editing level, in case the occurrence needs to be
edited rather than just replaced with @var{newstring}. When you are
done, exit the recursive editing level with @kbd{C-M-c} to proceed to
the next occurrence. @xref{Recursive Edit}.
@item C-w
to delete the occurrence, and then enter a recursive editing level as in
@kbd{C-r}. Use the recursive edit to insert text to replace the deleted
occurrence of @var{string}. When done, exit the recursive editing level
with @kbd{C-M-c} to proceed to the next occurrence.
@item C-l
to redisplay the screen. Then you must type another character to
specify what to do with this occurrence.
@item C-h
to display a message summarizing these options. Then you must type
another character to specify what to do with this occurrence.
@end table
Some other characters are aliases for the ones listed above: @kbd{y},
@kbd{n} and @kbd{q} are equivalent to @key{SPC}, @key{DEL} and
@key{RET}.
Aside from this, any other character exits the @code{query-replace},
and is then reread as part of a key sequence. Thus, if you type
@kbd{C-k}, it exits the @code{query-replace} and then kills to end of
line.
To restart a @code{query-replace} once it is exited, use @kbd{C-x
@key{ESC} @key{ESC}}, which repeats the @code{query-replace} because it
used the minibuffer to read its arguments. @xref{Repetition, C-x ESC
ESC}.
See also @ref{Transforming File Names}, for Dired commands to rename,
copy, or link files by replacing regexp matches in file names.
@node Other Repeating Search,, Replace, Search
@section Other Search-and-Loop Commands
Here are some other commands that find matches for a regular
expression. They all operate from point to the end of the buffer, and
all ignore case in matching, if the pattern contains no upper-case
letters and @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}.
@findex list-matching-lines
@findex occur
@findex count-matches
@findex delete-non-matching-lines
@findex delete-matching-lines
@findex flush-lines
@findex keep-lines
@table @kbd
@item M-x occur @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Display a list showing each line in the buffer that contains a match for
@var{regexp}. A numeric argument specifies the number of context lines
to print before and after each matching line; the default is none.
To limit the search to part of the buffer, narrow to that part
(@pxref{Narrowing}).
@kindex RET @r{(Occur mode)}
The buffer @samp{*Occur*} containing the output serves as a menu for
finding the occurrences in their original context. Click @kbd{Mouse-2}
on an occurrence listed in @samp{*Occur*}, or position point there and
type @key{RET}; this switches to the buffer that was searched and
moves point to the original of the chosen occurrence.
@item M-x list-matching-lines
Synonym for @kbd{M-x occur}.
@item M-x count-matches @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Print the number of matches for @var{regexp} after point.
@item M-x flush-lines @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Delete each line that follows point and contains a match for
@var{regexp}.
@item M-x keep-lines @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET}
Delete each line that follows point and @emph{does not} contain a match
for @var{regexp}.
@end table
In addition, you can use @code{grep} from Emacs to search a collection
of files for matches for a regular expression, then visit the matches
either sequentially or in arbitrary order. @xref{Grep Searching}.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Sending Mail, Rmail, Picture, Top
@chapter Sending Mail
@cindex sending mail
@cindex mail
@cindex message
To send a message in Emacs, you start by typing a command (@kbd{C-x m})
to select and initialize the @samp{*mail*} buffer. Then you edit the text
and headers of the message in this buffer, and type another command
(@kbd{C-c C-s} or @kbd{C-c C-c}) to send the message.
@table @kbd
@item C-x m
Begin composing a message to send (@code{compose-mail}).
@item C-x 4 m
Likewise, but display the message in another window
(@code{compose-mail-other-window}).
@item C-x 5 m
Likewise, but make a new frame (@code{compose-mail-other-frame}).
@item C-c C-s
In Mail mode, send the message (@code{mail-send}).
@item C-c C-c
Send the message and bury the mail buffer (@code{mail-send-and-exit}).
@end table
@kindex C-x m
@findex compose-mail
@kindex C-x 4 m
@findex compose-mail-other-window
@kindex C-x 5 m
@findex compose-mail-other-frame
The command @kbd{C-x m} (@code{compose-mail}) selects a buffer named
@samp{*mail*} and initializes it with the skeleton of an outgoing
message. @kbd{C-x 4 m} (@code{compose-mail-other-window}) selects the
@samp{*mail*} buffer in a different window, leaving the previous current
buffer visible. @kbd{C-x 5 m} (@code{compose-mail-other-frame}) creates
a new frame to select the @samp{*mail*} buffer.
Because the mail-composition buffer is an ordinary Emacs buffer, you can
switch to other buffers while in the middle of composing mail, and switch
back later (or never). If you use the @kbd{C-x m} command again when you
have been composing another message but have not sent it, you are asked to
confirm before the old message is erased. If you answer @kbd{n}, the
@samp{*mail*} buffer is left selected with its old contents, so you can
finish the old message and send it. @kbd{C-u C-x m} is another way to do
this. Sending the message marks the @samp{*mail*} buffer ``unmodified,''
which avoids the need for confirmation when @kbd{C-x m} is next used.
If you are composing a message in the @samp{*mail*} buffer and want to
send another message before finishing the first, rename the
@samp{*mail*} buffer using @kbd{M-x rename-uniquely} (@pxref{Misc
Buffer}). Then you can use @kbd{C-x m} or its variants described above
to make a new @samp{*mail*} buffer. Once you've done that, you can work
with each mail buffer independently.
@menu
* Format: Mail Format. Format of the mail being composed.
* Headers: Mail Headers. Details of permitted mail header fields.
* Aliases: Mail Aliases. Abbreviating and grouping mail addresses.
* Mode: Mail Mode. Special commands for editing mail being composed.
* Spook: Distracting NSA. How to distract the NSA's attention.
* Mail Methods:: Using alternative mail-composition methods.
@end menu
@node Mail Format
@section The Format of the Mail Buffer
In addition to the @dfn{text} or @dfn{body}, a message has @dfn{header
fields} which say who sent it, when, to whom, why, and so on. Some
header fields, such as @samp{Date} and @samp{Sender}, are created
automatically when you send the message. Others, such as the recipient
names, must be specified by you in order to send the message properly.
Mail mode provides a few commands to help you edit some header fields,
and some are preinitialized in the buffer automatically at times. You can
insert and edit header fields using ordinary editing commands.
The line in the buffer that says
@example
--text follows this line--
@end example
@noindent
is a special delimiter that separates the headers you have specified from
the text. Whatever follows this line is the text of the message; the
headers precede it. The delimiter line itself does not appear in the
message actually sent. The text used for the delimiter line is controlled
by the variable @code{mail-header-separator}.
Here is an example of what the headers and text in the mail buffer
might look like.
@example
To: gnu@@gnu.org
CC: lungfish@@spam.org, byob@@spam.org
Subject: The Emacs Manual
--Text follows this line--
Please ignore this message.
@end example
@node Mail Headers
@section Mail Header Fields
@cindex headers (of mail message)
A header field in the mail buffer starts with a field name at the
beginning of a line, terminated by a colon. Upper and lower case are
equivalent in field names (and in mailing addresses also). After the
colon and optional whitespace comes the contents of the field.
You can use any name you like for a header field, but normally people
use only standard field names with accepted meanings. Here is a table
of fields commonly used in outgoing messages.
@table @samp
@item To
This field contains the mailing addresses to which the message is
addressed. If you list more than one address, use commas, not spaces,
to separate them.
@item Subject
The contents of the @samp{Subject} field should be a piece of text
that says what the message is about. The reason @samp{Subject} fields
are useful is that most mail-reading programs can provide a summary of
messages, listing the subject of each message but not its text.
@item CC
This field contains additional mailing addresses to send the message to,
like @samp{To} except that these readers should not regard the message
as directed at them.
@item BCC
This field contains additional mailing addresses to send the message to,
which should not appear in the header of the message actually sent.
Copies sent this way are called @dfn{blind carbon copies}.
@vindex mail-self-blind
To send a blind carbon copy of every outgoing message to yourself, set
the variable @code{mail-self-blind} to @code{t}.
@item FCC
This field contains the name of one file and directs Emacs to append a
copy of the message to that file when you send the message. If the file
is in Rmail format, Emacs writes the message in Rmail format; otherwise,
Emacs writes the message in system mail file format.
@vindex mail-archive-file-name
To put a fixed file name in the @samp{FCC} field each time you start
editing an outgoing message, set the variable
@code{mail-archive-file-name} to that file name. Unless you remove the
@samp{FCC} field before sending, the message will be written into that
file when it is sent.
@item From
Use the @samp{From} field to say who you are, when the account you are
using to send the mail is not your own. The contents of the @samp{From}
field should be a valid mailing address, since replies will normally go
there. If you don't specify the @samp{From} field yourself, Emacs uses
the value of @code{user-mail-address} as the default.
@item Reply-to
Use this field to direct replies to a different address. Most
mail-reading programs (including Rmail) automatically send replies to
the @samp{Reply-to} address in preference to the @samp{From} address.
By adding a @samp{Reply-to} field to your header, you can work around
any problems your @samp{From} address may cause for replies.
@cindex @code{REPLYTO} environment variable
@vindex mail-default-reply-to
To put a fixed @samp{Reply-to} address into every outgoing message, set
the variable @code{mail-default-reply-to} to that address (as a string).
Then @code{mail} initializes the message with a @samp{Reply-to} field as
specified. You can delete or alter that header field before you send
the message, if you wish. When Emacs starts up, if the environment
variable @code{REPLYTO} is set, @code{mail-default-reply-to} is
initialized from that environment variable.
@item In-reply-to
This field contains a piece of text describing a message you are
replying to. Some mail systems can use this information to correlate
related pieces of mail. Normally this field is filled in by Rmail
when you reply to a message in Rmail, and you never need to
think about it (@pxref{Rmail}).
@item References
This field lists the message IDs of related previous messages. Rmail
sets up this field automatically when you reply to a message.
@end table
The @samp{To}, @samp{CC}, @samp{BCC} and @samp{FCC} header fields can
appear any number of times, and each such header field can contain
multiple addresses, separated by commas. This way, you can specify any
number of places to send the message. A @samp{To}, @samp{CC}, or
@samp{BCC} field can also have continuation lines: one or more lines
starting with whitespace, following the starting line of the field, are
considered part of the field. Here's an example of a @samp{To} field
with a continuation line:@refill
@example
@group
To: foo@@here.net, this@@there.net,
me@@gnu.cambridge.mass.usa.earth.spiral3281
@end group
@end example
@vindex mail-from-style
When you send the message, if you didn't write a @samp{From} field
yourself, Emacs puts in one for you. The variable
@code{mail-from-style} controls the format:
@table @code
@item nil
Use just the email address, as in @samp{king@@grassland.com}.
@item parens
Use both email address and full name, as in @samp{king@@grassland.com (Elvis
Parsley)}.
@item angles
Use both email address and full name, as in @samp{Elvis Parsley
<king@@grassland.com>}.
@item system-default
Allow the system to insert the @samp{From} field.
@end table
@node Mail Aliases
@section Mail Aliases
@cindex mail aliases
@cindex @file{.mailrc} file
@cindex mailrc file
You can define @dfn{mail aliases} in a file named @file{~/.mailrc}.
These are short mnemonic names which stand for mail addresses or groups of
mail addresses. Like many other mail programs, Emacs expands aliases
when they occur in the @samp{To}, @samp{From}, @samp{CC}, @samp{BCC}, and
@samp{Reply-to} fields, plus their @samp{Resent-} variants.
To define an alias in @file{~/.mailrc}, write a line in the following
format:
@example
alias @var{shortaddress} @var{fulladdresses}
@end example
@noindent
Here @var{fulladdresses} stands for one or more mail addresses for
@var{shortaddress} to expand into. Separate multiple addresses with
spaces; if an address contains a space, quote the whole address with a
pair of double-quotes.
For instance, to make @code{maingnu} stand for
@code{gnu@@gnu.org} plus a local address of your own, put in
this line:@refill
@example
alias maingnu gnu@@gnu.org local-gnu
@end example
Emacs also recognizes include commands in @samp{.mailrc} files.
They look like this:
@example
source @var{filename}
@end example
@noindent
The file @file{~/.mailrc} is used primarily by other mail-reading
programs; it can contain various other commands. Emacs ignores
everything in it except for alias definitions and include commands.
@findex define-mail-alias
Another way to define a mail alias, within Emacs alone, is with the
@code{define-mail-alias} command. It prompts for the alias and then the
full address. You can use it to define aliases in your @file{.emacs}
file, like this:
@example
(define-mail-alias "maingnu" "gnu@@gnu.org")
@end example
@vindex mail-aliases
@code{define-mail-alias} records aliases by adding them to a
variable named @code{mail-aliases}. If you are comfortable with
manipulating Lisp lists, you can set @code{mail-aliases} directly. The
initial value of @code{mail-aliases} is @code{t}, which means that
Emacs should read @file{.mailrc} to get the proper value.
@vindex mail-personal-alias-file
You can specify a different file name to use instead of
@file{~/.mailrc} by setting the variable
@code{mail-personal-alias-file}.
@findex expand-mail-aliases
Normally, Emacs expands aliases when you send the message. You do not
need to expand mail aliases before sending the message, but you can
expand them if you want to see where the mail will actually go. To do
this, use the command @kbd{M-x expand-mail-aliases}; it expands all mail
aliases currently present in the mail headers that hold addresses.
If you like, you can have mail aliases expand as abbrevs, as soon as
you type them in (@pxref{Abbrevs}). To enable this feature, execute the
following:
@example
(add-hook 'mail-setup-hook 'mail-abbrevs-setup)
@end example
@noindent
@findex define-mail-abbrev
@vindex mail-abbrevs
This can go in your @file{.emacs} file. @xref{Hooks}. If you use this
feature, you must use @code{define-mail-abbrev} instead of
@code{define-mail-alias}; the latter does not work with this package.
Note that the mail abbreviation package uses the variable
@code{mail-abbrevs} instead of @code{mail-aliases}, and that all alias
names are converted to lower case.
@kindex C-c C-a @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-interactive-insert-alias
The mail abbreviation package also provides the @kbd{C-c C-a}
(@code{mail-interactive-insert-alias}) command, which reads an alias
name (with completion) and inserts its definition at point. This is
useful when editing the message text itself or a header field such as
@samp{Subject} in which Emacs does not normally expand aliases.
Note that abbrevs expand only if you insert a word-separator character
afterward. However, you can rebind @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{M->} to cause
expansion as well. Here's how to do that:
@smallexample
(add-hook 'mail-setup-hook
'(lambda ()
(substitute-key-definition
'next-line 'mail-abbrev-next-line
mail-mode-map global-map)
(substitute-key-definition
'end-of-buffer 'mail-abbrev-end-of-buffer
mail-mode-map global-map)))
@end smallexample
@node Mail Mode
@section Mail Mode
@cindex Mail mode
@cindex mode, Mail
The major mode used in the mail buffer is Mail mode, which is much
like Text mode except that various special commands are provided on the
@kbd{C-c} prefix. These commands all have to do specifically with
editing or sending the message. In addition, Mail mode defines the
character @samp{%} as a word separator; this is helpful for using the
word commands to edit mail addresses.
Mail mode is normally used in buffers set up automatically by the
@code{mail} command and related commands. However, you can also switch
to Mail mode in a file-visiting buffer. That is a useful thing to do if
you have saved draft message text in a file.
@menu
* Mail Sending:: Commands to send the message.
* Header Editing:: Commands to move to header fields and edit them.
* Citing Mail:: Copying all or part of a message you are replying to.
* Mail Mode Misc:: Spell checking, signatures, etc.
@end menu
@node Mail Sending
@subsection Mail Sending
Mail mode has two commands for sending the message you have been
editing:
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-s
Send the message, and leave the mail buffer selected (@code{mail-send}).
@item C-c C-c
Send the message, and select some other buffer (@code{mail-send-and-exit}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-s @r{(Mail mode)}
@kindex C-c C-c @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-send
@findex mail-send-and-exit
@kbd{C-c C-s} (@code{mail-send}) sends the message and marks the mail
buffer unmodified, but leaves that buffer selected so that you can
modify the message (perhaps with new recipients) and send it again.
@kbd{C-c C-c} (@code{mail-send-and-exit}) sends and then deletes the
window or switches to another buffer. It puts the mail buffer at the
lowest priority for reselection by default, since you are finished with
using it. This is the usual way to send the message.
In a file-visiting buffer, sending the message does not clear the
modified flag, because only saving the file should do that. As a
result, you don't get a warning if you try to send the same message
twice.
@vindex sendmail-coding-system
When you send a message that contains non-ASCII characters, they need
to be encoded with a coding system (@pxref{Coding Systems}). Usually
the coding system is specified automatically by your chosen language
environment (@pxref{Language Environments}). You can explicitly specify
the coding system for outgoing mail by setting the variable
@code{sendmail-coding-system}.
If the coding system thus determined does not handle the characters in
a particular message, Emacs asks you to select the coding system to use,
showing a list of possible coding systems.
@node Header Editing
@subsection Mail Header Editing
Mail mode provides special commands to move to particular header
fields and to complete addresses in headers.
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-f C-t
Move to the @samp{To} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-to}).
@item C-c C-f C-s
Move to the @samp{Subject} header field, creating one if there is
none (@code{mail-subject}).
@item C-c C-f C-c
Move to the @samp{CC} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-cc}).
@item C-c C-f C-b
Move to the @samp{BCC} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-bcc}).
@item C-c C-f C-f
Move to the @samp{FCC} header field, creating one if there is none
(@code{mail-fcc}).
@item M-@key{TAB}
Complete a mailing address (@code{mail-complete}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-f C-t @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-to
@kindex C-c C-f C-s @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-subject
@kindex C-c C-f C-c @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-cc
@kindex C-c C-f C-b @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-bcc
@kindex C-c C-f C-f @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-fcc
There are five commands to move point to particular header fields, all
based on the prefix @kbd{C-c C-f} (@samp{C-f} is for ``field''). They
are listed in the table above. If the field in question does not exist,
these commands create one. We provide special motion commands for these
particular fields because they are the fields users most often want to
edit.
@findex mail-complete
@kindex M-TAB @r{(Mail mode)}
While editing a header field that contains mailing addresses, such as
@samp{To:}, @samp{CC:} and @samp{BCC:}, you can complete a mailing
address by typing @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} (@code{mail-complete}). It inserts
the full name corresponding to the address, if it can determine the full
name. The variable @code{mail-complete-style} controls whether to insert
the full name, and what style to use, as in @code{mail-from-style}
(@pxref{Mail Headers}).
For completion purposes, the valid mailing addresses are taken to be
the local users' names plus your personal mail aliases. You can specify
additional sources of valid addresses; use the customization buffer
to see the options for this.
If you type @kbd{M-@key{TAB}} in the body of the message, it invokes
@code{ispell-complete-word}, as in Text mode.
@node Citing Mail
@subsection Citing Mail
@cindex citing mail
Mail mode also has commands for yanking or @dfn{citing} all or part of
a message that you are replying to. These commands are active only when
you started sending a message using an Rmail command.
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-y
Yank the selected message from Rmail (@code{mail-yank-original}).
@item C-c C-r
Yank the region from the Rmail buffer (@code{mail-yank-region}).
@item C-c C-q
Fill each paragraph cited from another message
(@code{mail-fill-yanked-message}).
@end table
@kindex C-c C-y @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-yank-original
When mail sending is invoked from the Rmail mail reader using an Rmail
command, @kbd{C-c C-y} can be used inside the mail buffer to insert
the text of the message you are replying to. Normally it indents each line
of that message three spaces and eliminates most header fields. A numeric
argument specifies the number of spaces to indent. An argument of just
@kbd{C-u} says not to indent at all and not to eliminate anything.
@kbd{C-c C-y} always uses the current message from the Rmail buffer,
so you can insert several old messages by selecting one in Rmail,
switching to @samp{*mail*} and yanking it, then switching back to
Rmail to select another.
@vindex mail-yank-prefix
You can specify the text for @kbd{C-c C-y} to insert at the beginning
of each line: set @code{mail-yank-prefix} to the desired string. (A
value of @code{nil} means to use indentation; this is the default.)
However, @kbd{C-u C-c C-y} never adds anything at the beginning of the
inserted lines, regardless of the value of @code{mail-yank-prefix}.
@kindex C-c C-r @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-yank-region
To yank just a part of an incoming message, set the region in Rmail to
the part you want; then go to the @samp{*Mail*} message and type
@kbd{C-c C-r} (@code{mail-yank-region}). Each line that is copied is
indented or prefixed according to @code{mail-yank-prefix}.
@kindex C-c C-q @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-fill-yanked-message
After using @kbd{C-c C-y} or @kbd{C-c C-r}, you can type @kbd{C-c C-q}
(@code{mail-fill-yanked-message}) to fill the paragraphs of the yanked
old message or messages. One use of @kbd{C-c C-q} fills all such
paragraphs, each one individually. To fill a single paragraph of the
quoted message, use @kbd{M-q}. If filling does not automatically
handle the type of citation prefix you use, try setting the fill prefix
explicitly. @xref{Filling}.
@node Mail Mode Misc
@subsection Mail Mode Miscellany
@table @kbd
@item C-c C-t
Move to the beginning of the message body text (@code{mail-text}).
@item C-c C-w
Insert the file @file{~/.signature} at the end of the message text
(@code{mail-signature}).
@item C-c C-i @var{file} @key{RET}
Insert the contents of @var{file} at the end of the outgoing message
(@code{mail-attach-file}).
@item M-x ispell-message
Do spelling correction on the message text, but not on citations from
other messages.
@end table
@kindex C-c C-t @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-text
@kbd{C-c C-t} (@code{mail-text}) moves point to just after the header
separator line---that is, to the beginning of the message body text.
@kindex C-c C-w @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-signature
@vindex mail-signature
@kbd{C-c C-w} (@code{mail-signature}) adds a standard piece of text at
the end of the message to say more about who you are. The text comes
from the file @file{~/.signature} in your home directory. To insert
your signature automatically, set the variable @code{mail-signature} to
@code{t}; then starting a mail message automatically inserts the
contents of your @file{~/.signature} file. If you want to omit your
signature from a particular message, delete it from the buffer before
you send the message.
You can also set @code{mail-signature} to a string; then that string
is inserted automatically as your signature when you start editing a
message to send. If you set it to some other Lisp expression, the
expression is evaluated each time, and its value (which should be a
string) specifies the signature.
@findex ispell-message
You can do spelling correction on the message text you have written
with the command @kbd{M-x ispell-message}. If you have yanked an
incoming message into the outgoing draft, this command skips what was
yanked, but it checks the text that you yourself inserted. (It looks
for indentation or @code{mail-yank-prefix} to distinguish the cited
lines from your input.) @xref{Spelling}.
@kindex C-c C-i @r{(Mail mode)}
@findex mail-attach-file
To include a file in the outgoing message, you can use @kbd{C-x i},
the usual command to insert a file in the current buffer. But it is
often more convenient to use a special command, @kbd{C-c C-i}
(@code{mail-attach-file}). This command inserts the file contents at
the end of the buffer, after your signature if any, with a delimiter
line that includes the file name.
@vindex mail-mode-hook
@vindex mail-setup-hook
Turning on Mail mode (which @kbd{C-x m} does automatically) runs the
normal hooks @code{text-mode-hook} and @code{mail-mode-hook}.
Initializing a new outgoing message runs the normal hook
@code{mail-setup-hook}; if you want to add special fields to your mail
header or make other changes to the appearance of the mail buffer, use
that hook. @xref{Hooks}.
The main difference between these hooks is just when they are
invoked. Whenever you type @kbd{M-x mail}, @code{mail-mode-hook} runs
as soon as the @samp{*mail*} buffer is created. Then the
@code{mail-setup} function puts in the default contents of the buffer.
After these default contents are inserted, @code{mail-setup-hook} runs.
@node Distracting NSA
@section Distracting the NSA
@findex spook
@cindex NSA
@kbd{M-x spook} adds a line of randomly chosen keywords to an outgoing
mail message. The keywords are chosen from a list of words that suggest
you are discussing something subversive.
The idea behind this feature is the suspicion that the NSA snoops on
all electronic mail messages that contain keywords suggesting they might
find them interesting. (The NSA says they don't, but that's what they
@emph{would} say.) The idea is that if lots of people add suspicious
words to their messages, the NSA will get so busy with spurious input
that they will have to give up reading it all.
Here's how to insert spook keywords automatically whenever you start
entering an outgoing message:
@example
(add-hook 'mail-setup-hook 'spook)
@end example
Whether or not this confuses the NSA, it at least amuses people.
@node Mail Methods
@section Mail-Composition Methods
@cindex mail-composition methods
This chapter describes the usual Emacs mode for editing and sending
mail---Mail mode. Emacs has alternative facilities for editing and
sending mail, including MH-E and Message mode, not documented in this
manual. You can choose any of them as your preferred method. The
commands @code{C-x m}, @code{C-x 4 m} and @code{C-x 5 m} use whichever
agent you have specified. So do various other Emacs commands and
facilities that send mail.
@vindex mail-user-agent
To specify your mail-composition method, set the variable
@code{mail-user-agent}. Currently legitimate values include
@code{sendmail-user-agent}, @code{mh-e-user-agent}, and
@code{message-user-agent}.
If you select a different mail-composition method, the information in
this chapter about the @samp{*mail*} buffer and Mail mode does not
apply; other methods may use completely different commands with a
different format in a differently named buffer.

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@iftex
@chapter Dealing with Common Problems
If you type an Emacs command you did not intend, the results are often
mysterious. This chapter tells what you can do to cancel your mistake or
recover from a mysterious situation. Emacs bugs and system crashes are
also considered.
@end iftex
@node Quitting, Lossage, Customization, Top
@section Quitting and Aborting
@cindex quitting
@table @kbd
@item C-g
@itemx C-@key{BREAK} (MS-DOS)
Quit. Cancel running or partially typed command.
@item C-]
Abort innermost recursive editing level and cancel the command which
invoked it (@code{abort-recursive-edit}).
@item @key{ESC} @key{ESC} @key{ESC}
Either quit or abort, whichever makes sense (@code{keyboard-escape-quit}).
@item M-x top-level
Abort all recursive editing levels that are currently executing.
@item C-x u
Cancel a previously made change in the buffer contents (@code{undo}).
@end table
There are two ways of canceling commands which are not finished
executing: @dfn{quitting} with @kbd{C-g}, and @dfn{aborting} with
@kbd{C-]} or @kbd{M-x top-level}. Quitting cancels a partially typed
command or one which is already running. Aborting exits a recursive
editing level and cancels the command that invoked the recursive edit.
(@xref{Recursive Edit}.)
@cindex quitting
@kindex C-g
Quitting with @kbd{C-g} is used for getting rid of a partially typed
command, or a numeric argument that you don't want. It also stops a
running command in the middle in a relatively safe way, so you can use
it if you accidentally give a command which takes a long time. In
particular, it is safe to quit out of killing; either your text will
@emph{all} still be in the buffer, or it will @emph{all} be in the kill
ring (or maybe both). Quitting an incremental search does special
things documented under searching; in general, it may take two
successive @kbd{C-g} characters to get out of a search
(@pxref{Incremental Search}).
On MS-DOS, the character @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} serves as a quit character
like @kbd{C-g}. The reason is that it is not feasible, on MS-DOS, to
recognize @kbd{C-g} while a command is running, between interactions
with the user. By contrast, it @emph{is} feasible to recognize
@kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} at all times. @xref{MS-DOS Input}.
@kbd{C-g} works by setting the variable @code{quit-flag} to @code{t}
the instant @kbd{C-g} is typed; Emacs Lisp checks this variable
frequently and quits if it is non-@code{nil}. @kbd{C-g} is only
actually executed as a command if you type it while Emacs is waiting for
input.
If you quit with @kbd{C-g} a second time before the first @kbd{C-g} is
recognized, you activate the ``emergency escape'' feature and return to
the shell. @xref{Emergency Escape}.
@cindex NFS and quitting
There may be times when you cannot quit. When Emacs is waiting for
the operating system to do something, quitting is impossible unless
special pains are taken for the particular system call within Emacs
where the waiting occurs. We have done this for the system calls that
users are likely to want to quit from, but it's possible you will find
another. In one very common case---waiting for file input or output
using NFS---Emacs itself knows how to quit, but most NFS implementations
simply do not allow user programs to stop waiting for NFS when the NFS
server is hung.
@cindex aborting recursive edit
@findex abort-recursive-edit
@kindex C-]
Aborting with @kbd{C-]} (@code{abort-recursive-edit}) is used to get
out of a recursive editing level and cancel the command which invoked
it. Quitting with @kbd{C-g} does not do this, and could not do this,
because it is used to cancel a partially typed command @emph{within} the
recursive editing level. Both operations are useful. For example, if
you are in a recursive edit and type @kbd{C-u 8} to enter a numeric
argument, you can cancel that argument with @kbd{C-g} and remain in the
recursive edit.
@findex keyboard-escape-quit
@kindex ESC ESC ESC
The command @kbd{@key{ESC} @key{ESC} @key{ESC}}
(@code{keyboard-escape-quit}) can either quit or abort. This key was
defined because @key{ESC} is used to ``get out'' in many PC programs.
It can cancel a prefix argument, clear a selected region, or get out of
a Query Replace, like @kbd{C-g}. It can get out of the minibuffer or a
recursive edit, like @kbd{C-]}. It can also get out of splitting the
frame into multiple windows, like @kbd{C-x 1}. One thing it cannot do,
however, is stop a command that is running. That's because it executes
as an ordinary command, and Emacs doesn't notice it until it is ready
for a command.
@findex top-level
The command @kbd{M-x top-level} is equivalent to ``enough'' @kbd{C-]}
commands to get you out of all the levels of recursive edits that you
are in. @kbd{C-]} gets you out one level at a time, but @kbd{M-x
top-level} goes out all levels at once. Both @kbd{C-]} and @kbd{M-x
top-level} are like all other commands, and unlike @kbd{C-g}, in that
they take effect only when Emacs is ready for a command. @kbd{C-]} is
an ordinary key and has its meaning only because of its binding in the
keymap. @xref{Recursive Edit}.
@kbd{C-x u} (@code{undo}) is not strictly speaking a way of canceling
a command, but you can think of it as canceling a command that already
finished executing. @xref{Undo}.
@node Lossage, Bugs, Quitting, Top
@section Dealing with Emacs Trouble
This section describes various conditions in which Emacs fails to work
normally, and how to recognize them and correct them.
@menu
* DEL Gets Help:: What to do if @key{DEL} doesn't delete.
* Stuck Recursive:: `[...]' in mode line around the parentheses.
* Screen Garbled:: Garbage on the screen.
* Text Garbled:: Garbage in the text.
* Unasked-for Search:: Spontaneous entry to incremental search.
* Memory Full:: How to cope when you run out of memory.
* After a Crash:: Recovering editing in an Emacs session that crashed.
* Emergency Escape:: Emergency escape---
What to do if Emacs stops responding.
* Total Frustration:: When you are at your wits' end.
@end menu
@node DEL Gets Help
@subsection If @key{DEL} Fails to Delete
If you find that @key{DEL} enters Help like @kbd{Control-h} instead of
deleting a character, your terminal is sending the wrong code for
@key{DEL}. You can work around this problem by changing the keyboard
translation table (@pxref{Keyboard Translations}).
@node Stuck Recursive
@subsection Recursive Editing Levels
Recursive editing levels are important and useful features of Emacs, but
they can seem like malfunctions to the user who does not understand them.
If the mode line has square brackets @samp{[@dots{}]} around the parentheses
that contain the names of the major and minor modes, you have entered a
recursive editing level. If you did not do this on purpose, or if you
don't understand what that means, you should just get out of the recursive
editing level. To do so, type @kbd{M-x top-level}. This is called getting
back to top level. @xref{Recursive Edit}.
@node Screen Garbled
@subsection Garbage on the Screen
If the data on the screen looks wrong, the first thing to do is see
whether the text is really wrong. Type @kbd{C-l}, to redisplay the
entire screen. If the screen appears correct after this, the problem
was entirely in the previous screen update. (Otherwise, see @ref{Text
Garbled}.)
Display updating problems often result from an incorrect termcap entry
for the terminal you are using. The file @file{etc/TERMS} in the Emacs
distribution gives the fixes for known problems of this sort.
@file{INSTALL} contains general advice for these problems in one of its
sections. Very likely there is simply insufficient padding for certain
display operations. To investigate the possibility that you have this sort
of problem, try Emacs on another terminal made by a different manufacturer.
If problems happen frequently on one kind of terminal but not another kind,
it is likely to be a bad termcap entry, though it could also be due to a
bug in Emacs that appears for terminals that have or that lack specific
features.
@node Text Garbled
@subsection Garbage in the Text
If @kbd{C-l} shows that the text is wrong, try undoing the changes to it
using @kbd{C-x u} until it gets back to a state you consider correct. Also
try @kbd{C-h l} to find out what command you typed to produce the observed
results.
If a large portion of text appears to be missing at the beginning or
end of the buffer, check for the word @samp{Narrow} in the mode line.
If it appears, the text you don't see is probably still present, but
temporarily off-limits. To make it accessible again, type @kbd{C-x n
w}. @xref{Narrowing}.
@node Unasked-for Search
@subsection Spontaneous Entry to Incremental Search
If Emacs spontaneously displays @samp{I-search:} at the bottom of the
screen, it means that the terminal is sending @kbd{C-s} and @kbd{C-q}
according to the poorly designed xon/xoff ``flow control'' protocol.
If this happens to you, your best recourse is to put the terminal in a
mode where it will not use flow control, or give it so much padding that
it will never send a @kbd{C-s}. (One way to increase the amount of
padding is to set the variable @code{baud-rate} to a larger value. Its
value is the terminal output speed, measured in the conventional units
of baud.)
@cindex flow control
@cindex xon-xoff
@findex enable-flow-control
If you don't succeed in turning off flow control, the next best thing
is to tell Emacs to cope with it. To do this, call the function
@code{enable-flow-control}.
@findex enable-flow-control-on
Typically there are particular terminal types with which you must use
flow control. You can conveniently ask for flow control on those
terminal types only, using @code{enable-flow-control-on}. For example,
if you find you must use flow control on VT-100 and H19 terminals, put
the following in your @file{.emacs} file:
@example
(enable-flow-control-on "vt100" "h19")
@end example
When flow control is enabled, you must type @kbd{C-\} to get the
effect of a @kbd{C-s}, and type @kbd{C-^} to get the effect of a
@kbd{C-q}. (These aliases work by means of keyboard translations; see
@ref{Keyboard Translations}.)
@node Memory Full
@subsection Running out of Memory
@cindex memory full
@cindex out of memory
If you get the error message @samp{Virtual memory exceeded}, save your
modified buffers with @kbd{C-x s}. This method of saving them has the
smallest need for additional memory. Emacs keeps a reserve of memory
which it makes available when this error happens; that should be enough
to enable @kbd{C-x s} to complete its work.
Once you have saved your modified buffers, you can exit this Emacs job
and start another, or you can use @kbd{M-x kill-some-buffers} to free
space in the current Emacs job. If you kill buffers containing a
substantial amount of text, you can safely go on editing. Emacs refills
its memory reserve automatically when it sees sufficient free space
available, in case you run out of memory another time.
Do not use @kbd{M-x buffer-menu} to save or kill buffers when you run
out of memory, because the buffer menu needs a fair amount memory
itself, and the reserve supply may not be enough.
@node After a Crash
@subsection Recovery After a Crash
If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover the files you were
editing at the time of the crash from their auto-save files. To do
this, start Emacs again and type the command @kbd{M-x recover-session}.
This command initially displays a buffer which lists interrupted
session files, each with its date. You must choose which session to
recover from. Typically the one you want is the most recent one. Move
point to the one you choose, and type @kbd{C-c C-c}.
Then @code{recover-session} asks about each of the files that you were
editing during that session; it asks whether to recover that file. If
you answer @kbd{y} for a file, it shows the dates of that file and its
auto-save file, then asks once again whether to recover that file. For
the second question, you must confirm with @kbd{yes}. If you do, Emacs
visits the file but gets the text from the auto-save file.
When @code{recover-session} is done, the files you've chosen to
recover are present in Emacs buffers. You should then save them. Only
this---saving them---updates the files themselves.
@node Emergency Escape
@subsection Emergency Escape
Because at times there have been bugs causing Emacs to loop without
checking @code{quit-flag}, a special feature causes Emacs to be suspended
immediately if you type a second @kbd{C-g} while the flag is already set,
so you can always get out of GNU Emacs. Normally Emacs recognizes and
clears @code{quit-flag} (and quits!) quickly enough to prevent this from
happening. (On MS-DOS and compatible systems, type @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}}
twice.)
When you resume Emacs after a suspension caused by multiple @kbd{C-g}, it
asks two questions before going back to what it had been doing:
@example
Auto-save? (y or n)
Abort (and dump core)? (y or n)
@end example
@noindent
Answer each one with @kbd{y} or @kbd{n} followed by @key{RET}.
Saying @kbd{y} to @samp{Auto-save?} causes immediate auto-saving of all
modified buffers in which auto-saving is enabled.
Saying @kbd{y} to @samp{Abort (and dump core)?} causes an illegal instruction to be
executed, dumping core. This is to enable a wizard to figure out why Emacs
was failing to quit in the first place. Execution does not continue
after a core dump. If you answer @kbd{n}, execution does continue. With
luck, GNU Emacs will ultimately check @code{quit-flag} and quit normally.
If not, and you type another @kbd{C-g}, it is suspended again.
If Emacs is not really hung, just slow, you may invoke the double
@kbd{C-g} feature without really meaning to. Then just resume and answer
@kbd{n} to both questions, and you will arrive at your former state.
Presumably the quit you requested will happen soon.
The double-@kbd{C-g} feature is turned off when Emacs is running under
the X Window System, since you can use the window manager to kill Emacs
or to create another window and run another program.
On MS-DOS and compatible systems, the emergency escape feature is
sometimes unavailable, even if you press @kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} twice, when
some system call (MS-DOS or BIOS) hangs, or when Emacs is stuck in a
very tight endless loop (in C code, @strong{not} in Lisp code).
@node Total Frustration
@subsection Help for Total Frustration
@cindex Eliza
@cindex doctor
If using Emacs (or something else) becomes terribly frustrating and none
of the techniques described above solve the problem, Emacs can still help
you.
First, if the Emacs you are using is not responding to commands, type
@kbd{C-g C-g} to get out of it and then start a new one.
@findex doctor
Second, type @kbd{M-x doctor @key{RET}}.
The doctor will help you feel better. Each time you say something to
the doctor, you must end it by typing @key{RET} @key{RET}. This lets
the doctor know you are finished.
@node Bugs, Contributing, Lossage, Top
@section Reporting Bugs
@cindex bugs
Sometimes you will encounter a bug in Emacs. Although we cannot
promise we can or will fix the bug, and we might not even agree that it
is a bug, we want to hear about problems you encounter. Often we agree
they are bugs and want to fix them.
To make it possible for us to fix a bug, you must report it. In order
to do so effectively, you must know when and how to do it.
@menu
* Criteria: Bug Criteria. Have you really found a bug?
* Understanding Bug Reporting:: How to report a bug effectively.
* Checklist:: Steps to follow for a good bug report.
* Sending Patches:: How to send a patch for GNU Emacs.
@end menu
@node Bug Criteria
@subsection When Is There a Bug
If Emacs executes an illegal instruction, or dies with an operating
system error message that indicates a problem in the program (as opposed to
something like ``disk full''), then it is certainly a bug.
If Emacs updates the display in a way that does not correspond to what is
in the buffer, then it is certainly a bug. If a command seems to do the
wrong thing but the problem corrects itself if you type @kbd{C-l}, it is a
case of incorrect display updating.
Taking forever to complete a command can be a bug, but you must make
certain that it was really Emacs's fault. Some commands simply take a
long time. Type @kbd{C-g} (@kbd{C-@key{BREAK}} on MS-DOS) and then @kbd{C-h l}
to see whether the input Emacs received was what you intended to type;
if the input was such that you @emph{know} it should have been processed
quickly, report a bug. If you don't know whether the command should
take a long time, find out by looking in the manual or by asking for
assistance.
If a command you are familiar with causes an Emacs error message in a
case where its usual definition ought to be reasonable, it is probably a
bug.
If a command does the wrong thing, that is a bug. But be sure you know
for certain what it ought to have done. If you aren't familiar with the
command, or don't know for certain how the command is supposed to work,
then it might actually be working right. Rather than jumping to
conclusions, show the problem to someone who knows for certain.
Finally, a command's intended definition may not be best for editing
with. This is a very important sort of problem, but it is also a matter of
judgment. Also, it is easy to come to such a conclusion out of ignorance
of some of the existing features. It is probably best not to complain
about such a problem until you have checked the documentation in the usual
ways, feel confident that you understand it, and know for certain that what
you want is not available. If you are not sure what the command is
supposed to do after a careful reading of the manual, check the index and
glossary for any terms that may be unclear.
If after careful rereading of the manual you still do not understand
what the command should do, that indicates a bug in the manual, which
you should report. The manual's job is to make everything clear to
people who are not Emacs experts---including you. It is just as
important to report documentation bugs as program bugs.
If the on-line documentation string of a function or variable disagrees
with the manual, one of them must be wrong; that is a bug.
@node Understanding Bug Reporting
@subsection Understanding Bug Reporting
@findex emacs-version
When you decide that there is a bug, it is important to report it and to
report it in a way which is useful. What is most useful is an exact
description of what commands you type, starting with the shell command to
run Emacs, until the problem happens.
The most important principle in reporting a bug is to report
@emph{facts}. Hypotheses and verbal descriptions are no substitute for
the detailed raw data. Reporting the facts is straightforward, but many
people strain to posit explanations and report them instead of the
facts. If the explanations are based on guesses about how Emacs is
implemented, they will be useless; meanwhile, lacking the facts, we will
have no real information about the bug.
For example, suppose that you type @kbd{C-x C-f /glorp/baz.ugh
@key{RET}}, visiting a file which (you know) happens to be rather large,
and Emacs displayed @samp{I feel pretty today}. The best way to report
the bug is with a sentence like the preceding one, because it gives all
the facts.
A bad way would be to assume that the problem is due to the size of
the file and say, ``I visited a large file, and Emacs displayed @samp{I
feel pretty today}.'' This is what we mean by ``guessing
explanations.'' The problem is just as likely to be due to the fact
that there is a @samp{z} in the file name. If this is so, then when we
got your report, we would try out the problem with some ``large file,''
probably with no @samp{z} in its name, and not see any problem. There
is no way in the world that we could guess that we should try visiting a
file with a @samp{z} in its name.
Alternatively, the problem might be due to the fact that the file starts
with exactly 25 spaces. For this reason, you should make sure that you
inform us of the exact contents of any file that is needed to reproduce the
bug. What if the problem only occurs when you have typed the @kbd{C-x C-a}
command previously? This is why we ask you to give the exact sequence of
characters you typed since starting the Emacs session.
You should not even say ``visit a file'' instead of @kbd{C-x C-f} unless
you @emph{know} that it makes no difference which visiting command is used.
Similarly, rather than saying ``if I have three characters on the line,''
say ``after I type @kbd{@key{RET} A B C @key{RET} C-p},'' if that is
the way you entered the text.@refill
So please don't guess any explanations when you report a bug. If you
want to actually @emph{debug} the problem, and report explanations that
are more than guesses, that is useful---but please include the facts as
well.
@node Checklist
@subsection Checklist for Bug Reports
@cindex reporting bugs
The best way to send a bug report is to mail it electronically to the
Emacs maintainers at @samp{bug-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org}. (If you
want to suggest a change as an improvement, use the same address.)
If you'd like to read the bug reports, you can find them on the
newsgroup @samp{gnu.emacs.bug}; keep in mind, however, that as a
spectator you should not criticize anything about what you see there.
The purpose of bug reports is to give information to the Emacs
maintainers. Spectators are welcome only as long as they do not
interfere with this. In particular, some bug reports contain large
amounts of data; spectators should not complain about this.
Please do not post bug reports using netnews; mail is more reliable
than netnews about reporting your correct address, which we may need in
order to ask you for more information.
If you can't send electronic mail, then mail the bug report on paper
or machine-readable media to this address:
@format
GNU Emacs Bugs
Free Software Foundation
59 Temple Place, Suite 330
Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
@end format
We do not promise to fix the bug; but if the bug is serious,
or ugly, or easy to fix, chances are we will want to.
@findex report-emacs-bug
A convenient way to send a bug report for Emacs is to use the command
@kbd{M-x report-emacs-bug}. This sets up a mail buffer (@pxref{Sending
Mail}) and automatically inserts @emph{some} of the essential
information. However, it cannot supply all the necessary information;
you should still read and follow the guidelines below, so you can enter
the other crucial information by hand before you send the message.
To enable maintainers to investigate a bug, your report
should include all these things:
@itemize @bullet
@item
The version number of Emacs. Without this, we won't know whether there
is any point in looking for the bug in the current version of GNU
Emacs.
You can get the version number by typing @kbd{M-x emacs-version
@key{RET}}. If that command does not work, you probably have something
other than GNU Emacs, so you will have to report the bug somewhere
else.
@item
The type of machine you are using, and the operating system name and
version number. @kbd{M-x emacs-version @key{RET}} provides this
information too. Copy its output from the @samp{*Messages*} buffer, so
that you get it all and get it accurately.
@item
The operands given to the @code{configure} command when Emacs was
installed.
@item
A complete list of any modifications you have made to the Emacs source.
(We may not have time to investigate the bug unless it happens in an
unmodified Emacs. But if you've made modifications and you don't tell
us, you are sending us on a wild goose chase.)
Be precise about these changes. A description in English is not
enough---send a context diff for them.
Adding files of your own, or porting to another machine, is a
modification of the source.
@item
Details of any other deviations from the standard procedure for installing
GNU Emacs.
@item
The complete text of any files needed to reproduce the bug.
If you can tell us a way to cause the problem without visiting any files,
please do so. This makes it much easier to debug. If you do need files,
make sure you arrange for us to see their exact contents. For example, it
can often matter whether there are spaces at the ends of lines, or a
newline after the last line in the buffer (nothing ought to care whether
the last line is terminated, but try telling the bugs that).
@item
The precise commands we need to type to reproduce the bug.
@findex open-dribble-file
@cindex dribble file
The easy way to record the input to Emacs precisely is to write a
dribble file. To start the file, execute the Lisp expression
@example
(open-dribble-file "~/dribble")
@end example
@noindent
using @kbd{M-:} or from the @samp{*scratch*} buffer just after
starting Emacs. From then on, Emacs copies all your input to the
specified dribble file until the Emacs process is killed.
@item
@findex open-termscript
@cindex termscript file
@cindex @code{TERM} environment variable
For possible display bugs, the terminal type (the value of environment
variable @code{TERM}), the complete termcap entry for the terminal from
@file{/etc/termcap} (since that file is not identical on all machines),
and the output that Emacs actually sent to the terminal.
The way to collect the terminal output is to execute the Lisp expression
@example
(open-termscript "~/termscript")
@end example
@noindent
using @kbd{M-:} or from the @samp{*scratch*} buffer just after
starting Emacs. From then on, Emacs copies all terminal output to the
specified termscript file as well, until the Emacs process is killed.
If the problem happens when Emacs starts up, put this expression into
your @file{.emacs} file so that the termscript file will be open when
Emacs displays the screen for the first time.
Be warned: it is often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to fix a
terminal-dependent bug without access to a terminal of the type that
stimulates the bug.@refill
@item
A description of what behavior you observe that you believe is
incorrect. For example, ``The Emacs process gets a fatal signal,'' or,
``The resulting text is as follows, which I think is wrong.''
Of course, if the bug is that Emacs gets a fatal signal, then one can't
miss it. But if the bug is incorrect text, the maintainer might fail to
notice what is wrong. Why leave it to chance?
Even if the problem you experience is a fatal signal, you should still
say so explicitly. Suppose something strange is going on, such as, your
copy of the source is out of sync, or you have encountered a bug in the
C library on your system. (This has happened!) Your copy might crash
and the copy here might not. If you @emph{said} to expect a crash, then
when Emacs here fails to crash, we would know that the bug was not
happening. If you don't say to expect a crash, then we would not know
whether the bug was happening---we would not be able to draw any
conclusion from our observations.
@item
If the manifestation of the bug is an Emacs error message, it is
important to report the precise text of the error message, and a
backtrace showing how the Lisp program in Emacs arrived at the error.
To get the error message text accurately, copy it from the
@samp{*Messages*} buffer into the bug report. Copy all of it, not just
part.
To make a backtrace for the error, evaluate the Lisp expression
@code{(setq @w{debug-on-error t})} before the error happens (that is to
say, you must execute that expression and then make the bug happen).
This causes the error to run the Lisp debugger, which shows you a
backtrace. Copy the text of the debugger's backtrace into the bug
report.
This use of the debugger is possible only if you know how to make the
bug happen again. If you can't make it happen again, at least copy
the whole error message.
@item
Check whether any programs you have loaded into the Lisp world,
including your @file{.emacs} file, set any variables that may affect the
functioning of Emacs. Also, see whether the problem happens in a
freshly started Emacs without loading your @file{.emacs} file (start
Emacs with the @code{-q} switch to prevent loading the init file). If
the problem does @emph{not} occur then, you must report the precise
contents of any programs that you must load into the Lisp world in order
to cause the problem to occur.
@item
If the problem does depend on an init file or other Lisp programs that
are not part of the standard Emacs system, then you should make sure it
is not a bug in those programs by complaining to their maintainers
first. After they verify that they are using Emacs in a way that is
supposed to work, they should report the bug.
@item
If you wish to mention something in the GNU Emacs source, show the line
of code with a few lines of context. Don't just give a line number.
The line numbers in the development sources don't match those in your
sources. It would take extra work for the maintainers to determine what
code is in your version at a given line number, and we could not be
certain.
@item
Additional information from a C debugger such as GDB might enable
someone to find a problem on a machine which he does not have available.
If you don't know how to use GDB, please read the GDB manual---it is not
very long, and using GDB is easy. You can find the GDB distribution,
including the GDB manual in online form, in most of the same places you
can find the Emacs distribution. To run Emacs under GDB, you should
switch to the @file{src} subdirectory in which Emacs was compiled, then
do @samp{gdb emacs}. It is important for the directory @file{src} to be
current so that GDB will read the @file{.gdbinit} file in this
directory.
However, you need to think when you collect the additional information
if you want it to show what causes the bug.
@cindex backtrace for bug reports
For example, many people send just a backtrace, but that is not very
useful by itself. A simple backtrace with arguments often conveys
little about what is happening inside GNU Emacs, because most of the
arguments listed in the backtrace are pointers to Lisp objects. The
numeric values of these pointers have no significance whatever; all that
matters is the contents of the objects they point to (and most of the
contents are themselves pointers).
@findex debug_print
To provide useful information, you need to show the values of Lisp
objects in Lisp notation. Do this for each variable which is a Lisp
object, in several stack frames near the bottom of the stack. Look at
the source to see which variables are Lisp objects, because the debugger
thinks of them as integers.
To show a variable's value in Lisp syntax, first print its value, then
use the user-defined GDB command @code{pr} to print the Lisp object in
Lisp syntax. (If you must use another debugger, call the function
@code{debug_print} with the object as an argument.) The @code{pr}
command is defined by the file @file{.gdbinit}, and it works only if you
are debugging a running process (not with a core dump).
To make Lisp errors stop Emacs and return to GDB, put a breakpoint at
@code{Fsignal}.
To find out which Lisp functions are running, using GDB, move up the
stack, and each time you get to a frame for the function
@code{Ffuncall}, type these GDB commands:
@example
p *args
pr
@end example
@noindent
To print the first argument that the function received, use these
commands:
@example
p args[1]
pr
@end example
@noindent
You can print the other arguments likewise. The argument @code{nargs}
of @code{Ffuncall} says how many arguments @code{Ffuncall} received;
these include the Lisp function itself and the arguments for that
function.
The file @file{.gdbinit} defines several other commands that are useful
for examining the data types and contents of Lisp objects. Their names
begin with @samp{x}. These commands work at a lower level than
@code{pr}, and are less convenient, but they may work even when
@code{pr} does not, such as when debugging a core dump or when Emacs has
had a fatal signal.
@item
If the symptom of the bug is that Emacs fails to respond, don't assume
Emacs is ``hung''---it may instead be in an infinite loop. To find out
which, make the problem happen under GDB and stop Emacs once it is not
responding. (If Emacs is using X Windows directly, you can stop Emacs
by typing @kbd{C-z} at the GDB job.) Then try stepping with
@samp{step}. If Emacs is hung, the @samp{step} command won't return.
If it is looping, @samp{step} will return.
If this shows Emacs is hung in a system call, stop it again and examine
the arguments of the call. In your bug report, state exactly where in
the source the system call is, and what the arguments are.
If Emacs is in an infinite loop, please determine where the loop starts
and ends. The easiest way to do this is to use the GDB command
@samp{finish}. Each time you use it, Emacs resumes execution until it
exits one stack frame. Keep typing @samp{finish} until it doesn't
return---that means the infinite loop is in the stack frame which you
just tried to finish.
Stop Emacs again, and use @samp{finish} repeatedly again until you get
@emph{back to} that frame. Then use @samp{next} to step through that
frame. By stepping, you will see where the loop starts and ends. Also
please examine the data being used in the loop and try to determine why
the loop does not exit when it should. Include all of this information
in your bug report.
@end itemize
Here are some things that are not necessary in a bug report:
@itemize @bullet
@item
A description of the envelope of the bug---this is not necessary for a
reproducible bug.
Often people who encounter a bug spend a lot of time investigating
which changes to the input file will make the bug go away and which
changes will not affect it.
This is often time-consuming and not very useful, because the way we
will find the bug is by running a single example under the debugger with
breakpoints, not by pure deduction from a series of examples. You might
as well save time by not searching for additional examples.
Of course, if you can find a simpler example to report @emph{instead} of
the original one, that is a convenience. Errors in the output will be
easier to spot, running under the debugger will take less time, etc.
However, simplification is not vital; if you can't do this or don't have
time to try, please report the bug with your original test case.
@item
A system-call trace of Emacs execution.
System-call traces are very useful for certain special kinds of
debugging, but in most cases they give little useful information. It is
therefore strange that many people seem to think that @emph{the} way to
report information about a crash is to send a system-call trace. Perhaps
this is a habit formed from experience debugging programs that don't
have source code or debugging symbols.
In most programs, a backtrace is normally far, far more informative than
a system-call trace. Even in Emacs, a simple backtrace is generally
more informative, though to give full information you should supplement
the backtrace by displaying variable values and printing them as Lisp
objects with @code{pr} (see above).
@item
A patch for the bug.
A patch for the bug is useful if it is a good one. But don't omit the
other information that a bug report needs, such as the test case, on the
assumption that a patch is sufficient. We might see problems with your
patch and decide to fix the problem another way, or we might not
understand it at all. And if we can't understand what bug you are
trying to fix, or why your patch should be an improvement, we mustn't
install it.
@ifinfo
@xref{Sending Patches}, for guidelines on how to make it easy for us to
understand and install your patches.
@end ifinfo
@item
A guess about what the bug is or what it depends on.
Such guesses are usually wrong. Even experts can't guess right about
such things without first using the debugger to find the facts.
@end itemize
@node Sending Patches
@subsection Sending Patches for GNU Emacs
@cindex sending patches for GNU Emacs
@cindex patches, sending
If you would like to write bug fixes or improvements for GNU Emacs,
that is very helpful. When you send your changes, please follow these
guidelines to make it easy for the maintainers to use them. If you
don't follow these guidelines, your information might still be useful,
but using it will take extra work. Maintaining GNU Emacs is a lot of
work in the best of circumstances, and we can't keep up unless you do
your best to help.
@itemize @bullet
@item
Send an explanation with your changes of what problem they fix or what
improvement they bring about. For a bug fix, just include a copy of the
bug report, and explain why the change fixes the bug.
(Referring to a bug report is not as good as including it, because then
we will have to look it up, and we have probably already deleted it if
we've already fixed the bug.)
@item
Always include a proper bug report for the problem you think you have
fixed. We need to convince ourselves that the change is right before
installing it. Even if it is correct, we might have trouble
understanding it if we don't have a way to reproduce the problem.
@item
Include all the comments that are appropriate to help people reading the
source in the future understand why this change was needed.
@item
Don't mix together changes made for different reasons.
Send them @emph{individually}.
If you make two changes for separate reasons, then we might not want to
install them both. We might want to install just one. If you send them
all jumbled together in a single set of diffs, we have to do extra work
to disentangle them---to figure out which parts of the change serve
which purpose. If we don't have time for this, we might have to ignore
your changes entirely.
If you send each change as soon as you have written it, with its own
explanation, then two changes never get tangled up, and we can consider
each one properly without any extra work to disentangle them.
@item
Send each change as soon as that change is finished. Sometimes people
think they are helping us by accumulating many changes to send them all
together. As explained above, this is absolutely the worst thing you
could do.
Since you should send each change separately, you might as well send it
right away. That gives us the option of installing it immediately if it
is important.
@item
Use @samp{diff -c} to make your diffs. Diffs without context are hard
to install reliably. More than that, they are hard to study; we must
always study a patch to decide whether we want to install it. Unidiff
format is better than contextless diffs, but not as easy to read as
@samp{-c} format.
If you have GNU diff, use @samp{diff -c -F'^[_a-zA-Z0-9$]+ *('} when
making diffs of C code. This shows the name of the function that each
change occurs in.
@item
Avoid any ambiguity as to which is the old version and which is the new.
Please make the old version the first argument to diff, and the new
version the second argument. And please give one version or the other a
name that indicates whether it is the old version or your new changed
one.
@item
Write the change log entries for your changes. This is both to save us
the extra work of writing them, and to help explain your changes so we
can understand them.
The purpose of the change log is to show people where to find what was
changed. So you need to be specific about what functions you changed;
in large functions, it's often helpful to indicate where within the
function the change was.
On the other hand, once you have shown people where to find the change,
you need not explain its purpose in the change log. Thus, if you add a
new function, all you need to say about it is that it is new. If you
feel that the purpose needs explaining, it probably does---but put the
explanation in comments in the code. It will be more useful there.
Please read the @file{ChangeLog} files in the @file{src} and @file{lisp}
directories to see what sorts of information to put in, and to learn the
style that we use. If you would like your name to appear in the header
line, showing who made the change, send us the header line.
@xref{Change Log}.
@item
When you write the fix, keep in mind that we can't install a change that
would break other systems. Please think about what effect your change
will have if compiled on another type of system.
Sometimes people send fixes that @emph{might} be an improvement in
general---but it is hard to be sure of this. It's hard to install
such changes because we have to study them very carefully. Of course,
a good explanation of the reasoning by which you concluded the change
was correct can help convince us.
The safest changes are changes to the configuration files for a
particular machine. These are safe because they can't create new bugs
on other machines.
Please help us keep up with the workload by designing the patch in a
form that is clearly safe to install.
@end itemize
@node Contributing, Service, Bugs, Top
@section Contributing to Emacs Development
If you would like to help pretest Emacs releases to assure they work
well, or if you would like to work on improving Emacs, please contact
the maintainers at @code{bug-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org}. A pretester
should be prepared to investigate bugs as well as report them. If you'd
like to work on improving Emacs, please ask for suggested projects or
suggest your own ideas.
If you have already written an improvement, please tell us about it. If
you have not yet started work, it is useful to contact
@code{bug-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org} before you start; it might be
possible to suggest ways to make your extension fit in better with the
rest of Emacs.
@node Service, Command Arguments, Contributing, Top
@section How To Get Help with GNU Emacs
If you need help installing, using or changing GNU Emacs, there are two
ways to find it:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Send a message to the mailing list
@code{help-gnu-emacs@@gnu.org}, or post your request on
newsgroup @code{gnu.emacs.help}. (This mailing list and newsgroup
interconnect, so it does not matter which one you use.)
@item
Look in the service directory for someone who might help you for a fee.
The service directory is found in the file named @file{etc/SERVICE} in the
Emacs distribution.
@end itemize

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@c This is part of the Emacs manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions.
@node Windows, Frames, Buffers, Top
@chapter Multiple Windows
@cindex windows in Emacs
@cindex multiple windows in Emacs
Emacs can split a frame into two or many windows. Multiple windows
can display parts of different buffers, or different parts of one
buffer. Multiple frames always imply multiple windows, because each
frame has its own set of windows. Each window belongs to one and only
one frame.
@menu
* Basic Window:: Introduction to Emacs windows.
* Split Window:: New windows are made by splitting existing windows.
* Other Window:: Moving to another window or doing something to it.
* Pop Up Window:: Finding a file or buffer in another window.
* Force Same Window:: Forcing certain buffers to appear in the selected
window rather than in another window.
* Change Window:: Deleting windows and changing their sizes.
@end menu
@node Basic Window
@section Concepts of Emacs Windows
Each Emacs window displays one Emacs buffer at any time. A single
buffer may appear in more than one window; if it does, any changes in
its text are displayed in all the windows where it appears. But the
windows showing the same buffer can show different parts of it, because
each window has its own value of point.
@cindex selected window
At any time, one of the windows is the @dfn{selected window}; the
buffer this window is displaying is the current buffer. The terminal's
cursor shows the location of point in this window. Each other window
has a location of point as well, but since the terminal has only one
cursor there is no way to show where those locations are. When multiple
frames are visible in X Windows, each frame has a cursor which appears
in the frame's selected window. The cursor in the selected frame is
solid; the cursor in other frames is a hollow box.
Commands to move point affect the value of point for the selected Emacs
window only. They do not change the value of point in any other Emacs
window, even one showing the same buffer. The same is true for commands
such as @kbd{C-x b} to change the selected buffer in the selected window;
they do not affect other windows at all. However, there are other commands
such as @kbd{C-x 4 b} that select a different window and switch buffers in
it. Also, all commands that display information in a window, including
(for example) @kbd{C-h f} (@code{describe-function}) and @kbd{C-x C-b}
(@code{list-buffers}), work by switching buffers in a nonselected window
without affecting the selected window.
When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point. However,
they all have the same value for the mark, because each buffer has
only one mark position.
Each window has its own mode line, which displays the buffer name,
modification status and major and minor modes of the buffer that is
displayed in the window. @xref{Mode Line}, for full details on the mode
line.
@iftex
@break
@end iftex
@node Split Window
@section Splitting Windows
@table @kbd
@item C-x 2
Split the selected window into two windows, one above the other
(@code{split-window-vertically}).
@item C-x 3
Split the selected window into two windows positioned side by side
(@code{split-window-horizontally}).
@item C-Mouse-2
In the mode line or scroll bar of a window, split that window.
@end table
@kindex C-x 2
@findex split-window-vertically
The command @kbd{C-x 2} (@code{split-window-vertically}) breaks the
selected window into two windows, one above the other. Both windows start
out displaying the same buffer, with the same value of point. By default
the two windows each get half the height of the window that was split; a
numeric argument specifies how many lines to give to the top window.
@kindex C-x 3
@findex split-window-horizontally
@kbd{C-x 3} (@code{split-window-horizontally}) breaks the selected
window into two side-by-side windows. A numeric argument specifies how
many columns to give the one on the left. A line of vertical bars
separates the two windows. Windows that are not the full width of the
screen have mode lines, but they are truncated. On terminals where
Emacs does not support highlighting, truncated mode lines sometimes do
not appear in inverse video.
@kindex C-Mouse-2 @r{(scroll bar)}
You can split a window horizontally or vertically by clicking
@kbd{C-Mouse-2} in the mode line or the scroll bar. The line of
splitting goes through the place where you click: if you click on the
mode line, the new scroll bar goes above the spot; if you click in the
scroll bar, the mode line of the split window is side by side with your
click.
@vindex truncate-partial-width-windows
When a window is less than the full width, text lines too long to fit are
frequent. Continuing all those lines might be confusing. The variable
@code{truncate-partial-width-windows} can be set non-@code{nil} to force
truncation in all windows less than the full width of the screen,
independent of the buffer being displayed and its value for
@code{truncate-lines}. @xref{Continuation Lines}.@refill
Horizontal scrolling is often used in side-by-side windows.
@xref{Display}.
@vindex split-window-keep-point
If @code{split-window-keep-point} is non-@code{nil}, the default, both
of the windows resulting from @kbd{C-x 2} inherit the value of point
from the window that was split. This means that scrolling is
inevitable. If this variable is @code{nil}, then @kbd{C-x 2} tries to
avoid shifting any text the screen, by putting point in each window at a
position already visible in the window. It also selects whichever
window contain the screen line that the cursor was previously on. Some
users prefer the latter mode on slow terminals.
@node Other Window
@section Using Other Windows
@table @kbd
@item C-x o
Select another window (@code{other-window}). That is @kbd{o}, not zero.
@item C-M-v
Scroll the next window (@code{scroll-other-window}).
@item M-x compare-windows
Find next place where the text in the selected window does not match
the text in the next window.
@item Mouse-1
@kbd{Mouse-1}, in a window's mode line, selects that window
but does not move point in it (@code{mouse-select-window}).
@end table
@kindex C-x o
@findex other-window
To select a different window, click with @kbd{Mouse-1} on its mode
line. With the keyboard, you can switch windows by typing @kbd{C-x o}
(@code{other-window}). That is an @kbd{o}, for `other', not a zero.
When there are more than two windows, this command moves through all the
windows in a cyclic order, generally top to bottom and left to right.
After the rightmost and bottommost window, it goes back to the one at
the upper left corner. A numeric argument means to move several steps
in the cyclic order of windows. A negative argument moves around the
cycle in the opposite order. When the minibuffer is active, the
minibuffer is the last window in the cycle; you can switch from the
minibuffer window to one of the other windows, and later switch back and
finish supplying the minibuffer argument that is requested.
@xref{Minibuffer Edit}.
@kindex C-M-v
@findex scroll-other-window
The usual scrolling commands (@pxref{Display}) apply to the selected
window only, but there is one command to scroll the next window.
@kbd{C-M-v} (@code{scroll-other-window}) scrolls the window that
@kbd{C-x o} would select. It takes arguments, positive and negative,
like @kbd{C-v}. (In the minibuffer, @kbd{C-M-v} scrolls the window
that contains the minibuffer help display, if any, rather than the
next window in the standard cyclic order.)
The command @kbd{M-x compare-windows} lets you compare two files or
buffers visible in two windows, by moving through them to the next
mismatch. @xref{Comparing Files}, for details.
@node Pop Up Window
@section Displaying in Another Window
@cindex selecting buffers in other windows
@kindex C-x 4
@kbd{C-x 4} is a prefix key for commands that select another window
(splitting the window if there is only one) and select a buffer in that
window. Different @kbd{C-x 4} commands have different ways of finding the
buffer to select.
@table @kbd
@item C-x 4 b @var{bufname} @key{RET}
Select buffer @var{bufname} in another window. This runs
@code{switch-to-buffer-other-window}.
@item C-x 4 C-o @var{bufname} @key{RET}
Display buffer @var{bufname} in another window, but
don't select that buffer or that window. This runs
@code{display-buffer}.
@item C-x 4 f @var{filename} @key{RET}
Visit file @var{filename} and select its buffer in another window. This
runs @code{find-file-other-window}. @xref{Visiting}.
@item C-x 4 d @var{directory} @key{RET}
Select a Dired buffer for directory @var{directory} in another window.
This runs @code{dired-other-window}. @xref{Dired}.
@item C-x 4 m
Start composing a mail message in another window. This runs
@code{mail-other-window}; its same-window analogue is @kbd{C-x m}
(@pxref{Sending Mail}).
@item C-x 4 .
Find a tag in the current tags table, in another window. This runs
@code{find-tag-other-window}, the multiple-window variant of @kbd{M-.}
(@pxref{Tags}).
@item C-x 4 r @var{filename} @key{RET}
Visit file @var{filename} read-only, and select its buffer in another
window. This runs @code{find-file-read-only-other-window}.
@xref{Visiting}.
@end table
@node Force Same Window
@section Forcing Display in the Same Window
Certain Emacs commands switch to a specific buffer with special
contents. For example, @kbd{M-x shell} switches to a buffer named
@samp{*Shell*}. By convention, all these commands are written to pop up
the buffer in a separate window. But you can specify that certain of
these buffers should appear in the selected window.
@vindex same-window-buffer-names
If you add a buffer name to the list @code{same-window-buffer-names},
the effect is that such commands display that particular buffer by
switching to it in the selected window. For example, if you add the
element @code{"*grep*"} to the list, the @code{grep} command will
display its output buffer in the selected window.
The default value of @code{same-window-buffer-names} is not
@code{nil}: it specifies buffer names @samp{*info*}, @samp{*mail*} and
@samp{*shell*} (as well as others used by more obscure Emacs packages).
This is why @kbd{M-x shell} normally switches to the @samp{*shell*}
buffer in the selected window. If you delete this element from the
value of @code{same-window-buffer-names}, the behavior of @kbd{M-x
shell} will change---it will pop up the buffer in another window
instead.
@vindex same-window-regexps
You can specify these buffers more generally with the variable
@code{same-window-regexps}. Set it to a list of regular expressions;
then any buffer whose name matches one of those regular expressions is
displayed by switching to it in the selected window. (Once again, this
applies only to buffers that normally get displayed for you in a
separate window.) The default value of this variable specifies Telnet
and rlogin buffers.
An analogous feature lets you specify buffers which should be
displayed in their own individual frames. @xref{Special Buffer Frames}.
@node Change Window
@section Deleting and Rearranging Windows
@table @kbd
@item C-x 0
Delete the selected window (@code{delete-window}). The last character
in this key sequence is a zero.
@item C-x 1
Delete all windows in the selected frame except the selected window
(@code{delete-other-windows}).
@item C-x 4 0
Delete the selected window and kill the buffer that was showing in it
(@code{kill-buffer-and-window}). The last character in this key
sequence is a zero.
@item C-x ^
Make selected window taller (@code{enlarge-window}).
@item C-x @}
Make selected window wider (@code{enlarge-window-horizontally}).
@item C-x @{
Make selected window narrower (@code{shrink-window-horizontally}).
@item C-x -
Shrink this window if its buffer doesn't need so many lines
(@code{shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer}).
@item C-x +
Make all windows the same height (@code{balance-windows}).
@item Drag-Mouse-1
Dragging a window's mode line up or down with @kbd{Mouse-1} changes
window heights.
@item Mouse-2
@kbd{Mouse-2} in a window's mode line deletes all other windows in the frame
(@code{mouse-delete-other-windows}).
@item Mouse-3
@kbd{Mouse-3} in a window's mode line deletes that window
(@code{mouse-delete-window}).
@end table
@kindex C-x 0
@findex delete-window
To delete a window, type @kbd{C-x 0} (@code{delete-window}). (That is
a zero.) The space occupied by the deleted window is given to an
adjacent window (but not the minibuffer window, even if that is active
at the time). Once a window is deleted, its attributes are forgotten;
only restoring a window configuration can bring it back. Deleting the
window has no effect on the buffer it used to display; the buffer
continues to exist, and you can select it in any window with @kbd{C-x
b}.
@findex kill-buffer-and-window
@kindex C-x 4 0
@kbd{C-x 4 0} (@code{kill-buffer-and-window}) is a stronger command
than @kbd{C-x 0}; it kills the current buffer and then deletes the
selected window.
@kindex C-x 1
@findex delete-other-windows
@kbd{C-x 1} (@code{delete-other-windows}) is more powerful in a
different way; it deletes all the windows except the selected one (and
the minibuffer); the selected window expands to use the whole frame
except for the echo area.
You can also delete a window by clicking on its mode line with
@kbd{Mouse-2}, and delete all the windows in a frame except one window
by clicking on that window's mode line with @kbd{Mouse-3}.
The easiest way to adjust window heights is with a mouse. If you
press @kbd{Mouse-1} on a mode line, you can drag that mode line up or
down, changing the heights of the windows above and below it.
@kindex C-x ^
@findex enlarge-window
@kindex C-x @}
@findex enlarge-window-horizontally
@vindex window-min-height
@vindex window-min-width
To readjust the division of space among vertically adjacent windows,
use @kbd{C-x ^} (@code{enlarge-window}). It makes the currently
selected window get one line bigger, or as many lines as is specified
with a numeric argument. With a negative argument, it makes the
selected window smaller. @kbd{C-x @}}
(@code{enlarge-window-horizontally}) makes the selected window wider by
the specified number of columns. @kbd{C-x @{}
(@code{shrink-window-horizontally}) makes the selected window narrower
by the specified number of columns.
When you make a window bigger, the space comes from one of its
neighbors. If this makes any window too small, it is deleted and its
space is given to an adjacent window. The minimum size is specified by
the variables @code{window-min-height} and @code{window-min-width}.
@kindex C-x -
@findex shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer
The command @kbd{C-x -} (@code{shrink-window-if-larger-than-buffer})
reduces the height of the selected window, if it is taller than
necessary to show the whole text of the buffer it is displaying. It
gives the extra lines to other windows in the frame.
@kindex C-x +
@findex balance-windows
You can also use @kbd{C-x +} (@code{balance-windows}) to even out the
heights of all the windows in the selected frame.
@xref{Minibuffer Edit}, for information about the Resize-Minibuffer
mode, which automatically changes the size of the minibuffer window to
fit the text in the minibuffer.