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Dave Love
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etc/DISTRIB
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etc/DISTRIB
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-*- text -*-
|
||||
For an order form for all Emacs and FSF distributions deliverable from
|
||||
the USA, see the file `ORDERS' in this directory (etc/ in the GNU
|
||||
Emacs distribution or /pub/gnu/GNUinfo on ftp.gnu.org). For a
|
||||
European order form, see `ORDERS.EUROPE'. For a Japan order form,
|
||||
see `ORDERS.JAPAN'.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU Emacs availability information, April 1998
|
||||
Copyright (C) 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1998
|
||||
Free Software Foundation, Inc.
|
||||
|
||||
Permission is granted to anyone to make or distribute
|
||||
verbatim copies of this document provided that the
|
||||
copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU Emacs is legally owned by the Free Software Foundation, but we
|
||||
regard the foundation more as its custodian on behalf of the public.
|
||||
|
||||
In the GNU project, when we speak of "free software", this refers to
|
||||
liberty, not price. Specifically, it refers to the users' freedom to
|
||||
study, copy, change and improve the software. Sometimes users pay
|
||||
money for copies of GNU software, and sometimes they get copies at no
|
||||
charge. But regardless of how they got the software, or whether it
|
||||
was modified by anyone else along the way, they have the freedom to
|
||||
copy and change it--those freedoms are what "free software" means.
|
||||
|
||||
The precise conditions for copying and modification are stated in the
|
||||
document "GNU General Public License," a copy of which is required to
|
||||
be distributed with every copy of GNU Emacs. It is usually in a file
|
||||
named `COPYING' in the same directory as this file. These conditions
|
||||
are designed to make sure that everyone who has a copy of GNU Emacs
|
||||
(including modified versions) has the freedom to redistribute and
|
||||
change it.
|
||||
|
||||
If you do not know anyone to get a copy of GNU Emacs from, you can
|
||||
order a cd-rom from the Free Software Foundation. We distribute Emacs
|
||||
versions 19 and 20. We also distribute nicely typeset copies of the
|
||||
Emacs user manual, Emacs Lisp Reference Manual, the Emacs reference
|
||||
card, etc. See file `ORDERS'.
|
||||
|
||||
If you have Internet access, you can copy the latest Emacs
|
||||
distribution from hosts, such as ftp.gnu.org. There are several
|
||||
ways to do this; see the file `FTP' for more information. Even
|
||||
better, get the latest version of the file from `/pub/gnu/GNUinfo/FTP'
|
||||
on ftp.gnu.org for the most current arrangements. It may also be
|
||||
possible to copy Emacs via uucp; the file `FTP' contains information
|
||||
on that too.
|
||||
|
||||
Emacs has been run on both Berkeley Unix and System V Unix, on a
|
||||
variety of types of cpu. It also works on VMS and on Apollo
|
||||
computers, though with some deficiencies that reflect problems in
|
||||
these operating systems. See the file `MACHINES' in this directory
|
||||
(see above) for a full list of machines that GNU Emacs has been tested
|
||||
on, with machine-specific installation notes and warnings. There is
|
||||
also Demacs that works on newer MS-DOS machines (see file `ORDERS').
|
||||
|
||||
Note that there is significant variation between Unix systems
|
||||
supposedly running the same version of Unix; it is possible that what
|
||||
works in GNU Emacs for me does not work on your system due to such an
|
||||
incompatibility. Since I must avoid reading Unix source code, I
|
||||
cannot even guess what such problems may exist.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU Emacs is distributed with no warranty (see the General Public
|
||||
License for full details, in the file `COPYING' in this directory (see
|
||||
above)), and neither I nor the Free Software Foundation promises any
|
||||
kind of support or assistance to users. The foundation keeps a list
|
||||
of people who are willing to offer support and assistance for hire.
|
||||
See the file `SERVICE'. You can get the latest version from
|
||||
ftp.gnu.org in file `/pub/gnu/GNUinfo/SERVICE'.
|
||||
|
||||
However, we plan to continue to improve GNU Emacs and keep it
|
||||
reliable, so please send me any complaints and suggestions you have.
|
||||
I will probably fix anything that I consider a malfunction. I may
|
||||
make improvements that are suggested, but I may choose not to.
|
||||
Improving Emacs is not my highest priority now.
|
||||
|
||||
If you are on the Internet, report bugs to bug-gnu-emacs@gnu.org.
|
||||
Otherwise, phone or write the Foundation at:
|
||||
|
||||
Free Software Foundation
|
||||
59 Temple Place - Suite 330
|
||||
Boston, MA 02111-1307
|
||||
Voice: +1-617-542-5942
|
||||
Fax: +1-617-542-2652
|
||||
|
||||
General questions about the GNU Project can be asked of
|
||||
gnu@gnu.org.
|
||||
|
||||
If you are a computer manufacturer, I encourage you to ship a copy of
|
||||
GNU Emacs with every computer you deliver. The same copying
|
||||
permission terms apply to computer manufacturers as to everyone else.
|
||||
You should consider making a donation to help support the GNU project;
|
||||
if you estimate what it would cost to distribute some commercial
|
||||
product and divide it by five, that is a good amount.
|
||||
|
||||
If you like GNU Emacs, please express your satisfaction with a
|
||||
donation: send me or the Foundation what you feel Emacs has been worth
|
||||
to you. If you are glad that I developed GNU Emacs and distribute it
|
||||
as freeware, rather than following the obstructive and antisocial
|
||||
practices typical of software developers, reward me. If you would
|
||||
like the Foundation to develop more free software, contribute.
|
||||
|
||||
Your donations will help to support the development of additional GNU
|
||||
software. GNU/Linux systems (variants of GNU, based on the kernel
|
||||
Linux) have millions of users, but there is still much to be done.
|
||||
For more information on GNU, see the file `GNU' in this directory (see
|
||||
above).
|
||||
|
||||
Richard M Stallman
|
||||
Chief GNUisance,
|
||||
President of the Free Software Foundation
|
||||
236
etc/FTP
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236
etc/FTP
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|
|
@ -0,0 +1,236 @@
|
|||
-*- text -*-
|
||||
How to get GNU Software by Internet FTP or by UUCP. Last updated 1999-01-20
|
||||
|
||||
* Please send improvements to this file to gnu@gnu.org.
|
||||
|
||||
* No Warranties
|
||||
|
||||
We distribute software in the hope that it will be useful, but without
|
||||
any warranty. No author or distributor of this software accepts
|
||||
responsibility to anyone for the consequences of using it or for
|
||||
whether it serves any particular purpose or works at all, unless he
|
||||
says so in writing. This is exactly the same warranty that the commercial
|
||||
software companies offer: None. If the distribution is incomplete or the
|
||||
media fails, you can always download a replacement from any of the GNU
|
||||
mirrors, free of charge.
|
||||
|
||||
* Updates
|
||||
|
||||
A possibly more up-to-date list of GNU FTP sites is at
|
||||
http://www.gnu.org/order/ftp.html
|
||||
|
||||
* How to FTP
|
||||
|
||||
Use the ftp program on your system (ask locally if you can't find it)
|
||||
to connect to the host you are ftping from. Unless indicated
|
||||
otherwise, login in as user "anonymous", with password: "your e-mail
|
||||
address" and set "binary" mode (to transfer all eight bits in each
|
||||
byte).
|
||||
|
||||
ALWAYS USE BINARY/IMAGE MODE TO TRANSFER THESE FILES!
|
||||
Text mode does not work for tar files or compressed files.
|
||||
|
||||
* GNU Software and How To FTP It
|
||||
|
||||
GNU software is available on ftp.gnu.org under the directory /gnu.
|
||||
diff files to convert between versions exist for some of these
|
||||
programs. Some programs have misc support files as well. Have a look
|
||||
on ftp.gnu.org to see which ones. In most cases, the tar or diff
|
||||
files are compressed with the `gzip' program; this is indicated with
|
||||
the .gz suffix.
|
||||
|
||||
Descriptions of GNU software are available at
|
||||
http://www.gnu.org/software/software.html
|
||||
|
||||
* Alternative Internet FTP Sources
|
||||
|
||||
Please do NOT use a site outside your country, until you have checked
|
||||
all sites inside your country, and then your continent. Trans-ocean
|
||||
TCP/IP links are very expensive and usually very low speed.
|
||||
|
||||
The canonical GNU ftp site is located at ftp.gnu.org/gnu.
|
||||
You should probably use one of the many mirrors of that site - the
|
||||
mirrors will be less busy, and you can find one closer to your site.
|
||||
|
||||
* GNU FTP Site Mirror List
|
||||
|
||||
United States:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
California - labrea.stanford.edu/pub/gnu, gatekeeper.dec.com/pub/GNU
|
||||
Hawaii - ftp.hawaii.edu/mirrors/gnu
|
||||
Illinois - uiarchive.cso.uiuc.edu/pub/gnu (Internet address 128.174.5.14)
|
||||
Kentucky - ftp.ms.uky.edu/pub/gnu
|
||||
Maryland - ftp.digex.net/pub/gnu (Internet address 164.109.10.23)
|
||||
Massachusetts - aeneas.mit.edu/pub/gnu
|
||||
Michigan - gnu.egr.msu.edu/pub/gnu
|
||||
Missouri - wuarchive.wustl.edu/systems/gnu
|
||||
New Mexico - ftp.cs.unm.edu/mirrors/gnu
|
||||
New York - ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/gnu/prep
|
||||
Ohio - ftp.cis.ohio-state.edu/mirror/gnu
|
||||
Tennessee - ftp.skyfire.net/pub/gnu
|
||||
Virginia - ftp.uu.net/archive/systems/gnu
|
||||
Washington - ftp.nodomainname.net/pub/mirrors/gnu
|
||||
|
||||
Africa:
|
||||
|
||||
South Africa - ftp.sun.ac.za/gnu
|
||||
|
||||
The Americas:
|
||||
|
||||
Brazil - ftp.unicamp.br/pub/gnu
|
||||
Brazil - master.softaplic.com.br/pub/gnu
|
||||
Brazil - linuxlabs.lci.ufrj.br/gnu
|
||||
Canada - ftp.cs.ubc.ca/mirror2/gnu
|
||||
Chile - ftp.inf.utfsm.cl/pub/gnu (Internet address 146.83.198.3)
|
||||
Costa Rica - sunsite.ulatina.ac.cr/GNU
|
||||
Mexico - ftp.uaem.mx/pub/gnu
|
||||
|
||||
Australia:
|
||||
|
||||
Australia - archie.au/gnu (archie.oz or archie.oz.au for ACSnet)
|
||||
Australia - ftp.progsoc.uts.edu.au/pub/gnu
|
||||
Australia - mirror.aarnet.edu.au/pub/gnu
|
||||
|
||||
Asia:
|
||||
|
||||
Japan - tron.um.u-tokyo.ac.jp/pub/GNU/prep
|
||||
Japan - ftp.cs.titech.ac.jp/pub/gnu
|
||||
Korea - cair-archive.kaist.ac.kr/pub/gnu (Internet address 143.248.186.3)
|
||||
Saudi Arabia - ftp.isu.net.sa/pub/mirrors/prep.ai.mit.edu/
|
||||
Taiwan - ftp.edu.tw/UNIX/gnu/
|
||||
Taiwan - ftp.nctu.edu.tw/UNIX/gnu/
|
||||
Taiwan - ftp1.sinica.edu.tw/pub3/GNU/gnu/
|
||||
Thailand - ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/mirrors/gnu (Internet address - 192.150.251.32)
|
||||
|
||||
Europe:
|
||||
|
||||
Austria - ftp.univie.ac.at/packages/gnu
|
||||
Austria - gd.tuwien.ac.at/gnu/gnusrc
|
||||
Belgium - ftp.be.gnu.org/
|
||||
Austria - http://gd.tuwien.ac.at/gnu/gnusrc/
|
||||
Czech Republic - ftp.fi.muni.cz/pub/gnu/
|
||||
Denmark - ftp.denet.dk/mirror/ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu
|
||||
Denmark - ftp.dkuug.dk/pub/gnu/
|
||||
Finland - ftp.funet.fi/pub/gnu
|
||||
France - ftp.univ-lyon1.fr/pub/gnu
|
||||
France - ftp.irisa.fr/pub/gnu
|
||||
Germany - ftp.informatik.tu-muenchen.de/pub/comp/os/unix/gnu/
|
||||
Germany - ftp.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/pub/gnu
|
||||
Germany - ftp.de.uu.net/pub/gnu
|
||||
Greece - ftp.forthnet.gr/pub/gnu
|
||||
Greece - ftp.ntua.gr/pub/gnu
|
||||
Greece - ftp.aua.gr/pub/mirrors/GNU (Internet address 143.233.187.61)
|
||||
Hungary - ftp.kfki.hu/pub/gnu
|
||||
Ireland - ftp.esat.net/pub/gnu (Internet address 193.120.14.241)
|
||||
Italy - ftp.oasi.gpa.it/pub/gnu
|
||||
Netherlands - ftp.eu.net/gnu (Internet address 192.16.202.1)
|
||||
Netherlands - ftp.nluug.nl/pub/gnu
|
||||
Netherlands - ftp.win.tue.nl/pub/gnu (Internet address 131.155.70.19)
|
||||
Norway - ftp.ntnu.no/pub/gnu (Internet address 129.241.11.142)
|
||||
Poland - ftp.task.gda.pl/pub/gnu
|
||||
Portugal - ftp.ci.uminho.pt/pub/mirrors/gnu
|
||||
Portugal - http://ciumix.ci.uminho.pt/mirrors/gnu/
|
||||
Portugal - ftp.ist.utl.pt/pub/gnu
|
||||
Russia - ftp.chg.ru/pub/gnu/
|
||||
Slovenia - ftp.arnes.si/pub/software/gnu
|
||||
Spain - ftp.etsimo.uniovi.es/pub/gnu
|
||||
Sweden - ftp.isy.liu.se/pub/gnu
|
||||
Sweden - ftp.stacken.kth.se
|
||||
Sweden - ftp.luth.se/pub/unix/gnu
|
||||
Sweden - ftp.sunet.se/pub/gnu (Internet address 130.238.127.3)
|
||||
Also mirrors the Mailing List Archives.
|
||||
Sweden - swamp.ios.chalmers.se/pub/gnu/
|
||||
Switzerland - ftp.eunet.ch/mirrors4/gnu
|
||||
Switzerland - sunsite.cnlab-switch.ch/mirror/gnu (Internet address 193.5.24.1)
|
||||
United Kingdom - ftp.mcc.ac.uk/pub/gnu (Internet address 130.88.203.12)
|
||||
United Kingdom - unix.hensa.ac.uk/mirrors/gnu
|
||||
United Kingdom - ftp.warwick.ac.uk (Internet address 137.205.192.14)
|
||||
United Kingdom - SunSITE.doc.ic.ac.uk/gnu (Internet address 193.63.255.4)
|
||||
|
||||
* How to FTP GNU Emacs
|
||||
|
||||
Emacs is in the directory /gnu/emacs on ftp.gnu.org. The emacs
|
||||
distribution itself has a filename in the form emacs-M.N.tar.gz, where
|
||||
M and N stand for the version numbers; the Emacs Lisp Reference Manual
|
||||
is in a separate file, named elisp-manual-NN.tar.gz.
|
||||
|
||||
* Scheme and How to FTP It
|
||||
|
||||
The latest distribution version of C Scheme is available via anonymous FTP
|
||||
from swiss-ftp.ai.mit.edu in /pub/scheme-X.X/ (where X.X is some version
|
||||
number).
|
||||
|
||||
Read the files INSTALL and README in the top level C Scheme directory.
|
||||
|
||||
* TeX and How to Obtain It
|
||||
|
||||
We don't distribute TeX now, but it is free software.
|
||||
|
||||
TeX is a document formatter that is used, among other things, by the FSF
|
||||
for all its documentation. You will need it if you want to make printed
|
||||
manuals.
|
||||
|
||||
TeX is freely redistributable. You can get it by ftp, tape, or CD/ROM.
|
||||
|
||||
** For FTP instructions, retrieve the file
|
||||
ftp.cs.umb.edu/pub/tex/unixtex.ftp. (We don't include it here because it
|
||||
changes relatively frequently. Sorry.)
|
||||
|
||||
** A minimal TeX collection (enough to process Texinfo files, anyway)
|
||||
is included on the GNU source CD-ROM. See the file ORDERS in this
|
||||
directory for more information.
|
||||
|
||||
* VMS FTP sites with GNU Software
|
||||
You can anonymously ftp a VMS version of GNU emacs from:
|
||||
- ftp.vms.stacken.kth.se:[.GNU-VMS] - GNU Emacs and some other VMS
|
||||
ports (and some VMS binaries) of GNU software
|
||||
- mango.rsmas.miami.edu has a VMS version of the GCC/G++ compiler.
|
||||
Contact angel@flipper.miami.edu (angel li) for details.
|
||||
- RIGEL.EFD.LTH.SE [130.235.48.3] - GNU Emacs
|
||||
|
||||
* Getting GNU software in Great Britain
|
||||
|
||||
jpo@cs.nott.ac.uk is willing to distribute those GNU sources he has
|
||||
available. The smaller items are available from the info-server (send
|
||||
to info-server@cs.nott.ac.uk); the larger items by negotiation. Due to
|
||||
communication costs this service is only available within the UK.
|
||||
|
||||
BattenIG@computer-science.birmingham.ac.uk (aka
|
||||
I.G.Batten@fulcrum.bt.co.uk) is also willing to distribute those GNU
|
||||
sources he has.
|
||||
|
||||
wizards@doc.ic.ac.uk is willing to distribute those GNU sources they have
|
||||
along with most other freely distributable software. The SunSITE archive
|
||||
on SunSITE.doc.ic.ac.uk (193.63.255.4) is available via ftp, http, fsp,
|
||||
gopher, NFS and Lanmanger over IP (SMB), and telnet.
|
||||
|
||||
UK sites with just anonymous FTP access are in the above list.
|
||||
|
||||
* Getting GNU software via UUCP
|
||||
|
||||
OSU is distributing via UUCP: most GNU software, MIT C Scheme,
|
||||
Compress, News, RN, NNTP, Patch, some Appletalk stuff, some of the
|
||||
Internet Requests For Comment (RFC) et al.. See their periodic
|
||||
postings on the Usenet newsgroup comp.sources.d for informational
|
||||
updates. Current details from <staff@cis.ohio-state.edu> or
|
||||
<...!osu-cis!staff>.
|
||||
|
||||
Information on how to uucp some GNU programs is available via
|
||||
electronic mail from: uunet!hutch!barber, hqda-ai!merlin, acornrc!bob,
|
||||
hao!scicom!qetzal!upba!ugn!nepa!denny, ncar!noao!asuvax!hrc!dan,
|
||||
bigtex!james (aka james@bigtex.cactus.org), oli-stl!root,
|
||||
src@contrib.de (Germany), toku@dit.co.jp (Japan) and info@ftp.uu.net.
|
||||
|
||||
* If You Like The Software
|
||||
|
||||
If you like the software developed and distributed by the Free
|
||||
Software Foundation, please express your satisfaction with a donation.
|
||||
Your donations will help to support the Foundation and make our future
|
||||
efforts successful, including a complete development and operating
|
||||
system, called GNU (Gnu's Not Unix), which will run Unix user
|
||||
programs. For more information on GNU and the Foundation, contact us
|
||||
at the above address, or see our web site at http://www.gnu.org.
|
||||
|
||||
Ordering a GNU Source Code CD-ROM or Source Code CD-ROM Subscription
|
||||
is a good way for your organization to help support our work.
|
||||
532
etc/GNU
Normal file
532
etc/GNU
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,532 @@
|
|||
Copyright (C) 1985, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
|
||||
|
||||
Permission is granted to anyone to make or distribute verbatim copies
|
||||
of this document, in any medium, provided that the copyright notice and
|
||||
permission notice are preserved, and that the distributor grants the
|
||||
recipient permission for further redistribution as permitted by this
|
||||
notice.
|
||||
|
||||
Modified versions may not be made.
|
||||
|
||||
The GNU Manifesto
|
||||
*****************
|
||||
|
||||
The GNU Manifesto which appears below was written by Richard
|
||||
Stallman at the beginning of the GNU project, to ask for
|
||||
participation and support. For the first few years, it was
|
||||
updated in minor ways to account for developments, but now it
|
||||
seems best to leave it unchanged as most people have seen it.
|
||||
|
||||
Since that time, we have learned about certain common
|
||||
misunderstandings that different wording could help avoid.
|
||||
Footnotes added in 1993 help clarify these points.
|
||||
|
||||
For up-to-date information about the available GNU software,
|
||||
please see the latest issue of the GNU's Bulletin. The list is
|
||||
much too long to include here.
|
||||
|
||||
What's GNU? Gnu's Not Unix!
|
||||
============================
|
||||
|
||||
GNU, which stands for Gnu's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
|
||||
Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
|
||||
away free to everyone who can use it.(1) Several other volunteers are
|
||||
helping me. Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are
|
||||
greatly needed.
|
||||
|
||||
So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor
|
||||
commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator,
|
||||
a linker, and around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is
|
||||
nearly completed. A new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled
|
||||
itself and may be released this year. An initial kernel exists but
|
||||
many more features are needed to emulate Unix. When the kernel and
|
||||
compiler are finished, it will be possible to distribute a GNU system
|
||||
suitable for program development. We will use TeX as our text
|
||||
formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We will use the free,
|
||||
portable X window system as well. After this we will add a portable
|
||||
Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of other
|
||||
things, plus on-line documentation. We hope to supply, eventually,
|
||||
everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to
|
||||
Unix. We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our
|
||||
experience with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to
|
||||
have longer file names, file version numbers, a crashproof file system,
|
||||
file name completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and
|
||||
perhaps eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several
|
||||
Lisp programs and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C
|
||||
and Lisp will be available as system programming languages. We will
|
||||
try to support UUCP, MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for
|
||||
communication.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with
|
||||
virtual memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run
|
||||
on. The extra effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left
|
||||
to someone who wants to use it on them.
|
||||
|
||||
To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word
|
||||
`GNU' when it is the name of this project.
|
||||
|
||||
Why I Must Write GNU
|
||||
====================
|
||||
|
||||
I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I
|
||||
must share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to
|
||||
divide the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share
|
||||
with others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this
|
||||
way. I cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a
|
||||
software license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial
|
||||
Intelligence Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities,
|
||||
but eventually they had gone too far: I could not remain in an
|
||||
institution where such things are done for me against my will.
|
||||
|
||||
So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have
|
||||
decided to put together a sufficient body of free software so that I
|
||||
will be able to get along without any software that is not free. I
|
||||
have resigned from the AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent
|
||||
me from giving GNU away.
|
||||
|
||||
Why GNU Will Be Compatible with Unix
|
||||
====================================
|
||||
|
||||
Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential
|
||||
features of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what
|
||||
Unix lacks without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix
|
||||
would be convenient for many other people to adopt.
|
||||
|
||||
How GNU Will Be Available
|
||||
=========================
|
||||
|
||||
GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to
|
||||
modify and redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to
|
||||
restrict its further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary
|
||||
modifications will not be allowed. I want to make sure that all
|
||||
versions of GNU remain free.
|
||||
|
||||
Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help
|
||||
=======================================
|
||||
|
||||
I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and
|
||||
want to help.
|
||||
|
||||
Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
|
||||
software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them
|
||||
to feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel
|
||||
as comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
|
||||
sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used
|
||||
essentially forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The
|
||||
purchaser of software must choose between friendship and obeying the
|
||||
law. Naturally, many decide that friendship is more important. But
|
||||
those who believe in law often do not feel at ease with either choice.
|
||||
They become cynical and think that programming is just a way of making
|
||||
money.
|
||||
|
||||
By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can
|
||||
be hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as
|
||||
an example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in
|
||||
sharing. This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if
|
||||
we use software that is not free. For about half the programmers I
|
||||
talk to, this is an important happiness that money cannot replace.
|
||||
|
||||
How You Can Contribute
|
||||
======================
|
||||
|
||||
I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and
|
||||
money. I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.
|
||||
|
||||
One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU
|
||||
will run on them at an early date. The machines should be complete,
|
||||
ready to use systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not
|
||||
in need of sophisticated cooling or power.
|
||||
|
||||
I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time
|
||||
work for GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would
|
||||
be very hard to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not
|
||||
work together. But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this
|
||||
problem is absent. A complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility
|
||||
programs, each of which is documented separately. Most interface
|
||||
specifications are fixed by Unix compatibility. If each contributor
|
||||
can write a compatible replacement for a single Unix utility, and make
|
||||
it work properly in place of the original on a Unix system, then these
|
||||
utilities will work right when put together. Even allowing for Murphy
|
||||
to create a few unexpected problems, assembling these components will
|
||||
be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer communication and
|
||||
will be worked on by a small, tight group.)
|
||||
|
||||
If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full
|
||||
or part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but
|
||||
I'm looking for people for whom building community spirit is as
|
||||
important as making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated
|
||||
people to devote their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them
|
||||
the need to make a living in another way.
|
||||
|
||||
Why All Computer Users Will Benefit
|
||||
===================================
|
||||
|
||||
Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system
|
||||
software free, just like air.(2)
|
||||
|
||||
This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix
|
||||
license. It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming
|
||||
effort will be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the
|
||||
state of the art.
|
||||
|
||||
Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result,
|
||||
a user who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them
|
||||
himself, or hire any available programmer or company to make them for
|
||||
him. Users will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company
|
||||
which owns the sources and is in sole position to make changes.
|
||||
|
||||
Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment
|
||||
by encouraging all students to study and improve the system code.
|
||||
Harvard's computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be
|
||||
installed on the system if its sources were not on public display, and
|
||||
upheld it by actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very
|
||||
much inspired by this.
|
||||
|
||||
Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software
|
||||
and what one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.
|
||||
|
||||
Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including
|
||||
licensing of copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through
|
||||
the cumbersome mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is,
|
||||
which programs) a person must pay for. And only a police state can
|
||||
force everyone to obey them. Consider a space station where air must
|
||||
be manufactured at great cost: charging each breather per liter of air
|
||||
may be fair, but wearing the metered gas mask all day and all night is
|
||||
intolerable even if everyone can afford to pay the air bill. And the
|
||||
TV cameras everywhere to see if you ever take the mask off are
|
||||
outrageous. It's better to support the air plant with a head tax and
|
||||
chuck the masks.
|
||||
|
||||
Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
|
||||
breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free.
|
||||
|
||||
Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals
|
||||
==============================================
|
||||
|
||||
"Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't
|
||||
rely on any support."
|
||||
|
||||
"You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
|
||||
support."
|
||||
|
||||
If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free
|
||||
without service, a company to provide just service to people who have
|
||||
obtained GNU free ought to be profitable.(3)
|
||||
|
||||
We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming
|
||||
work and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on
|
||||
from a software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough
|
||||
people, the vendor will tell you to get lost.
|
||||
|
||||
If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way
|
||||
is to have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any
|
||||
available person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any
|
||||
individual. With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of
|
||||
consideration for most businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is
|
||||
still possible for there to be no available competent person, but this
|
||||
problem cannot be blamed on distribution arrangements. GNU does not
|
||||
eliminate all the world's problems, only some of them.
|
||||
|
||||
Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need
|
||||
handholding: doing things for them which they could easily do
|
||||
themselves but don't know how.
|
||||
|
||||
Such services could be provided by companies that sell just
|
||||
hand-holding and repair service. If it is true that users would rather
|
||||
spend money and get a product with service, they will also be willing
|
||||
to buy the service having got the product free. The service companies
|
||||
will compete in quality and price; users will not be tied to any
|
||||
particular one. Meanwhile, those of us who don't need the service
|
||||
should be able to use the program without paying for the service.
|
||||
|
||||
"You cannot reach many people without advertising, and you must
|
||||
charge for the program to support that."
|
||||
|
||||
"It's no use advertising a program people can get free."
|
||||
|
||||
There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be
|
||||
used to inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But
|
||||
it may be true that one can reach more microcomputer users with
|
||||
advertising. If this is really so, a business which advertises the
|
||||
service of copying and mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful
|
||||
enough to pay for its advertising and more. This way, only the users
|
||||
who benefit from the advertising pay for it.
|
||||
|
||||
On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and
|
||||
such companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not
|
||||
really necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates
|
||||
don't want to let the free market decide this?(4)
|
||||
|
||||
"My company needs a proprietary operating system to get a
|
||||
competitive edge."
|
||||
|
||||
GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of
|
||||
competition. You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but
|
||||
neither will your competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and
|
||||
they will compete in other areas, while benefiting mutually in this
|
||||
one. If your business is selling an operating system, you will not
|
||||
like GNU, but that's tough on you. If your business is something else,
|
||||
GNU can save you from being pushed into the expensive business of
|
||||
selling operating systems.
|
||||
|
||||
I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
|
||||
manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.(5)
|
||||
|
||||
"Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?"
|
||||
|
||||
If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution.
|
||||
Creativity can be a social contribution, but only in so far as society
|
||||
is free to use the results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for
|
||||
creating innovative programs, by the same token they deserve to be
|
||||
punished if they restrict the use of these programs.
|
||||
|
||||
"Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his
|
||||
creativity?"
|
||||
|
||||
There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to
|
||||
maximize one's income, as long as one does not use means that are
|
||||
destructive. But the means customary in the field of software today
|
||||
are based on destruction.
|
||||
|
||||
Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of
|
||||
it is destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the
|
||||
ways that the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth
|
||||
that humanity derives from the program. When there is a deliberate
|
||||
choice to restrict, the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.
|
||||
|
||||
The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to
|
||||
become wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become
|
||||
poorer from the mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or,
|
||||
the Golden Rule. Since I do not like the consequences that result if
|
||||
everyone hoards information, I am required to consider it wrong for one
|
||||
to do so. Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity
|
||||
does not justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that
|
||||
creativity.
|
||||
|
||||
"Won't programmers starve?"
|
||||
|
||||
I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us
|
||||
cannot manage to get any money for standing on the street and making
|
||||
faces. But we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives
|
||||
standing on the street making faces, and starving. We do something
|
||||
else.
|
||||
|
||||
But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's
|
||||
implicit assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers
|
||||
cannot possibly be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing.
|
||||
|
||||
The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
|
||||
possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
|
||||
now.
|
||||
|
||||
Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software.
|
||||
It is the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it
|
||||
were prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would
|
||||
move to other bases of organization which are now used less often.
|
||||
There are always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.
|
||||
|
||||
Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it
|
||||
is now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not
|
||||
considered an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they
|
||||
now do. If programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice
|
||||
either. (In practice they would still make considerably more than
|
||||
that.)
|
||||
|
||||
"Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is
|
||||
used?"
|
||||
|
||||
"Control over the use of one's ideas" really constitutes control over
|
||||
other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
|
||||
difficult.
|
||||
|
||||
People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights
|
||||
carefully (such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to
|
||||
intellectual property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property
|
||||
rights that the government recognizes were created by specific acts of
|
||||
legislation for specific purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
For example, the patent system was established to encourage
|
||||
inventors to disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was
|
||||
to help society rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life
|
||||
span of 17 years for a patent was short compared with the rate of
|
||||
advance of the state of the art. Since patents are an issue only among
|
||||
manufacturers, for whom the cost and effort of a license agreement are
|
||||
small compared with setting up production, the patents often do not do
|
||||
much harm. They do not obstruct most individuals who use patented
|
||||
products.
|
||||
|
||||
The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
|
||||
frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This
|
||||
practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have
|
||||
survived even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for
|
||||
the purpose of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was
|
||||
invented--books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
|
||||
press--it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
|
||||
who read the books.
|
||||
|
||||
All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
|
||||
because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole
|
||||
would benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we
|
||||
have to ask: are we really better off granting such license? What kind
|
||||
of act are we licensing a person to do?
|
||||
|
||||
The case of programs today is very different from that of books a
|
||||
hundred years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is
|
||||
from one neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source
|
||||
code and object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is
|
||||
used rather than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in
|
||||
which a person who enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole
|
||||
both materially and spiritually; in which a person should not do so
|
||||
regardless of whether the law enables him to.
|
||||
|
||||
"Competition makes things get done better."
|
||||
|
||||
The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
|
||||
encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this
|
||||
way, it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it
|
||||
always works this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered
|
||||
and become intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other
|
||||
strategies--such as, attacking other runners. If the runners get into
|
||||
a fist fight, they will all finish late.
|
||||
|
||||
Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners
|
||||
in a fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem
|
||||
to object to fights; he just regulates them ("For every ten yards you
|
||||
run, you can fire one shot"). He really ought to break them up, and
|
||||
penalize runners for even trying to fight.
|
||||
|
||||
"Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?"
|
||||
|
||||
Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary
|
||||
incentive. Programming has an irresistible fascination for some
|
||||
people, usually the people who are best at it. There is no shortage of
|
||||
professional musicians who keep at it even though they have no hope of
|
||||
making a living that way.
|
||||
|
||||
But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate
|
||||
to the situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become
|
||||
less. So the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced
|
||||
monetary incentive? My experience shows that they will.
|
||||
|
||||
For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked
|
||||
at the Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could
|
||||
have had anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards:
|
||||
fame and appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a
|
||||
reward in itself.
|
||||
|
||||
Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same
|
||||
interesting work for a lot of money.
|
||||
|
||||
What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other
|
||||
than riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they
|
||||
will come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly
|
||||
in competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly
|
||||
if the high-paying ones are banned.
|
||||
|
||||
"We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we stop
|
||||
helping our neighbors, we have to obey."
|
||||
|
||||
You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
|
||||
Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!
|
||||
|
||||
"Programmers need to make a living somehow."
|
||||
|
||||
In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways
|
||||
that programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a
|
||||
program. This way is customary now because it brings programmers and
|
||||
businessmen the most money, not because it is the only way to make a
|
||||
living. It is easy to find other ways if you want to find them. Here
|
||||
are a number of examples.
|
||||
|
||||
A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
|
||||
operating systems onto the new hardware.
|
||||
|
||||
The sale of teaching, hand-holding and maintenance services could
|
||||
also employ programmers.
|
||||
|
||||
People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware, asking
|
||||
for donations from satisfied users, or selling hand-holding services.
|
||||
I have met people who are already working this way successfully.
|
||||
|
||||
Users with related needs can form users' groups, and pay dues. A
|
||||
group would contract with programming companies to write programs that
|
||||
the group's members would like to use.
|
||||
|
||||
All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:
|
||||
|
||||
Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay x percent of the
|
||||
price as a software tax. The government gives this to an agency
|
||||
like the NSF to spend on software development.
|
||||
|
||||
But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
|
||||
himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to
|
||||
the project of his own choosing--often, chosen because he hopes to
|
||||
use the results when it is done. He can take a credit for any
|
||||
amount of donation up to the total tax he had to pay.
|
||||
|
||||
The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of the
|
||||
tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.
|
||||
|
||||
The consequences:
|
||||
|
||||
* The computer-using community supports software development.
|
||||
|
||||
* This community decides what level of support is needed.
|
||||
|
||||
* Users who care which projects their share is spent on can
|
||||
choose this for themselves.
|
||||
|
||||
In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the
|
||||
post-scarcity world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to
|
||||
make a living. People will be free to devote themselves to activities
|
||||
that are fun, such as programming, after spending the necessary ten
|
||||
hours a week on required tasks such as legislation, family counseling,
|
||||
robot repair and asteroid prospecting. There will be no need to be
|
||||
able to make a living from programming.
|
||||
|
||||
We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole
|
||||
society must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this
|
||||
has translated itself into leisure for workers because much
|
||||
nonproductive activity is required to accompany productive activity.
|
||||
The main causes of this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against
|
||||
competition. Free software will greatly reduce these drains in the
|
||||
area of software production. We must do this, in order for technical
|
||||
gains in productivity to translate into less work for us.
|
||||
|
||||
---------- Footnotes ----------
|
||||
|
||||
(1) The wording here was careless. The intention was that nobody
|
||||
would have to pay for *permission* to use the GNU system. But the
|
||||
words don't make this clear, and people often interpret them as saying
|
||||
that copies of GNU should always be distributed at little or no charge.
|
||||
That was never the intent; later on, the manifesto mentions the
|
||||
possibility of companies providing the service of distribution for a
|
||||
profit. Subsequently I have learned to distinguish carefully between
|
||||
"free" in the sense of freedom and "free" in the sense of price. Free
|
||||
software is software that users have the freedom to distribute and
|
||||
change. Some users may obtain copies at no charge, while others pay to
|
||||
obtain copies--and if the funds help support improving the software, so
|
||||
much the better. The important thing is that everyone who has a copy
|
||||
has the freedom to cooperate with others in using it.
|
||||
|
||||
(2) This is another place I failed to distinguish carefully between
|
||||
the two different meanings of "free". The statement as it stands is
|
||||
not false--you can get copies of GNU software at no charge, from your
|
||||
friends or over the net. But it does suggest the wrong idea.
|
||||
|
||||
(3) Several such companies now exist.
|
||||
|
||||
(4) The Free Software Foundation raises most of its funds from a
|
||||
distribution service, although it is a charity rather than a company.
|
||||
If *no one* chooses to obtain copies by ordering from the FSF, it
|
||||
will be unable to do its work. But this does not mean that proprietary
|
||||
restrictions are justified to force every user to pay. If a small
|
||||
fraction of all the users order copies from the FSF, that is sufficient
|
||||
to keep the FSF afloat. So we ask users to choose to support us in
|
||||
this way. Have you done your part?
|
||||
|
||||
(5) A group of computer companies recently pooled funds to support
|
||||
maintenance of the GNU C Compiler.
|
||||
|
||||
443
etc/INTERVIEW
Normal file
443
etc/INTERVIEW
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,443 @@
|
|||
|
||||
GNU'S NOT UNIX
|
||||
|
||||
Conducted by David Betz and Jon Edwards
|
||||
|
||||
Richard Stallman discusses his public-domain
|
||||
UNIX-compatible software system
|
||||
with BYTE editors
|
||||
(July 1986)
|
||||
|
||||
Copyright (C) 1986 Richard Stallman. Permission is granted to make and
|
||||
distribute copies of this article as long as the copyright and this notice
|
||||
appear on all copies.
|
||||
|
||||
Richard Stallman has undertaken probably the most ambitious free software
|
||||
development project to date, the GNU system. In his GNU Manifesto,
|
||||
published in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal, Stallman described
|
||||
GNU as a "complete Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so
|
||||
that I can give it away free to everyone who can use it... Once GNU is
|
||||
written, everyone will be able to obtain good system software free, just
|
||||
like air." (GNU is an acronym for GNU's Not UNIX; the "G" is pronounced.)
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman is widely known as the author of EMACS, a powerful text editor
|
||||
that he developed at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. It is no
|
||||
coincidence that the first piece of software produced as part of the GNU
|
||||
project was a new implementation of EMACS. GNU EMACS has already achieved a
|
||||
reputation as one of the best implementations of EMACS currently available
|
||||
at any price.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: We read your GNU Manifesto in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's.
|
||||
What has happened since? Was that really the beginning, and how have you
|
||||
progressed since then?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: The publication in Dr. Dobb's wasn't the beginning of the
|
||||
project. I wrote the GNU Manifesto when I was getting ready to start the
|
||||
project, as a proposal to ask computer manufacturers for funding. They
|
||||
didn't want to get involved, and I decided that rather than spend my time
|
||||
trying to pursue funds, I ought to spend it writing code. The manifesto was
|
||||
published about a year and a half after I had written it, when I had barely
|
||||
begun distributing the GNU EMACS. Since that time, in addition to making
|
||||
GNU EMACS more complete and making it run on many more computers, I have
|
||||
nearly finished the optimizing C compiler and all the other software that
|
||||
is needed for running C programs. This includes a source-level debugger
|
||||
that has many features that the other source-level debuggers on UNIX don't
|
||||
have. For example, it has convenience variables within the debugger so you
|
||||
can save values, and it also has a history of all the values that you have
|
||||
printed out, making it tremendously easier to chase around list structures.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: You have finished an editor that is now widely distributed and you
|
||||
are about to finish the compiler.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I expect that it will be finished this October.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: What about the kernel?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I'm currently planning to start with the kernel that was written
|
||||
at MIT and was released to the public recently with the idea that I would
|
||||
use it. This kernel is called TRIX; it's based on remote procedure call. I
|
||||
still need to add compatibility for a lot of the features of UNIX which it
|
||||
doesn't have currently. I haven't started to work on that yet. I'm
|
||||
finishing the compiler before I go to work on the kernel. I am also going
|
||||
to have to rewrite the file system. I intend to make it failsafe just by
|
||||
having it write blocks in the proper order so that the disk structure is
|
||||
always consistent. Then I want to add version numbers. I have a complicated
|
||||
scheme to reconcile version numbers with the way people usually use UNIX.
|
||||
You have to be able to specify filenames without version numbers, but you
|
||||
also have to be able to specify them with explicit version numbers, and
|
||||
these both need to work with ordinary UNIX programs that have not been
|
||||
modified in any way to deal with the existence of this feature. I think I
|
||||
have a scheme for doing this, and only trying it will show me whether it
|
||||
really does the job.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Do you have a brief description you can give us as to how GNU as a
|
||||
system will be superior to other systems? We know that one of your goals is
|
||||
to produce something that is compatible with UNIX. But at least in the area
|
||||
of file systems you have already said that you are going to go beyond UNIX
|
||||
and produce something that is better.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: The C compiler will produce better code and run faster. The
|
||||
debugger is better. With each piece I may or may not find a way to improve
|
||||
it. But there is no one answer to this question. To some extent I am
|
||||
getting the benefit of reimplementation, which makes many systems much
|
||||
better. To some extent it's because I have been in the field a long time
|
||||
and worked on many other systems. I therefore have many ideas to bring to
|
||||
bear. One way in which it will be better is that practically everything in
|
||||
the system will work on files of any size, on lines of any size, with any
|
||||
characters appearing in them. The UNIX system is very bad in that regard.
|
||||
It's not anything new as a principle of software engineering that you
|
||||
shouldn't have arbitrary limits. But it just was the standard practice in
|
||||
writing UNIX to put those in all the time, possibly just because they were
|
||||
writing it for a very small computer. The only limit in the GNU system is
|
||||
when your program runs out of memory because it tried to work on too much
|
||||
data and there is no place to keep it all.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: And that isn't likely to be hit if you've got virtual memory. You may
|
||||
just take forever to come up with the solution.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Actually these limits tend to hit in a time long before you take
|
||||
forever to come up with the solution.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Can you say something about what types of machines and environments
|
||||
GNU EMACS in particular has been made to run under? It's now running on
|
||||
VAXes; has it migrated in any form to personal computers?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I'm not sure what you mean by personal computers. For example, is
|
||||
a Sun a personal computer? GNU EMACS requires at least a megabyte of
|
||||
available memory and preferably more. It is normally used on machines that
|
||||
have virtual memory. Except for various technical problems in a few C
|
||||
compilers, almost any machine with virtual memory and running a fairly
|
||||
recent version of UNIX will run GNU EMACS, and most of them currently do.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Has anyone tried to port it to Ataris or Macintoshes?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: The Atari 1040ST still doesn't have quite enough memory. The next
|
||||
Atari machine, I expect, will run it. I also think that future Ataris will
|
||||
have some forms of memory mapping. Of course, I am not designing the
|
||||
software to run on the kinds of computers that are prevalent today. I knew
|
||||
when I started this project it was going to take a few years. I therefore
|
||||
decided that I didn't want to make a worse system by taking on the
|
||||
additional challenge of making it run in the currently constrained
|
||||
environment. So instead I decided I'm going to write it in the way that
|
||||
seems the most natural and best. I am confident that in a couple of years
|
||||
machines of sufficient size will be prevalent. In fact, increases in memory
|
||||
size are happening so fast it surprises me how slow most of the people are
|
||||
to put in virtual memory; I think it is totally essential.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: I think people don't really view it as being necessary for
|
||||
single-user machines.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: They don't understand that single user doesn't mean single
|
||||
program. Certainly for any UNIX-like system it's important to be able to
|
||||
run lots of different processes at the same time even if there is only one
|
||||
of you. You could run GNU EMACS on a nonvirtual-memory machine with enough
|
||||
memory, but you couldn't run the rest of the GNU system very well or a UNIX
|
||||
system very well.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: How much of LISP is present in GNU EMACS? It occurred to me that it
|
||||
may be useful to use that as a tool for learning LISP.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: You can certainly do that. GNU EMACS contains a complete,
|
||||
although not very powerful, LISP system. It's powerful enough for writing
|
||||
editor commands. It's not comparable with, say, a Common LISP System,
|
||||
something you could really use for system programming, but it has all the
|
||||
things that LISP needs to have.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Do you have any predictions about when you would be likely to
|
||||
distribute a workable environment in which, if we put it on our machines or
|
||||
workstations, we could actually get reasonable work done without using
|
||||
anything other than code that you distribute?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: It's really hard to say. That could happen in a year, but of
|
||||
course it could take longer. It could also conceivably take less, but
|
||||
that's not too likely anymore. I think I'll have the compiler finished in a
|
||||
month or two. The only other large piece of work I really have to do is in
|
||||
the kernel. I first predicted GNU would take something like two years, but
|
||||
it has now been two and a half years and I'm still not finished. Part of
|
||||
the reason for the delay is that I spent a lot of time working on one
|
||||
compiler that turned out to be a dead end. I had to rewrite it completely.
|
||||
Another reason is that I spent so much time on GNU EMACS. I originally
|
||||
thought I wouldn't have to do that at all.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Tell us about your distribution scheme.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I don't put software or manuals in the public domain, and the
|
||||
reason is that I want to make sure that all the users get the freedom to
|
||||
share. I don't want anyone making an improved version of a program I wrote
|
||||
and distributing it as proprietary. I don't want that to ever be able to
|
||||
happen. I want to encourage the free improvements to these programs, and
|
||||
the best way to do that is to take away any temptation for a person to make
|
||||
improvements nonfree. Yes, a few of them will refrain from making
|
||||
improvements, but a lot of others will make the same improvements and
|
||||
they'll make them free.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: And how do you go about guaranteeing that?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I do this by copyrighting the programs and putting on a notice
|
||||
giving people explicit permission to copy the programs and change them but
|
||||
only on the condition that they distribute under the same terms that I
|
||||
used, if at all. You don't have to distribute the changes you make to any
|
||||
of my programs--you can just do it for yourself, and you don't have to give
|
||||
it to anyone or tell anyone. But if you do give it to someone else, you
|
||||
have to do it under the same terms that I use.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Do you obtain any rights over the executable code derived from the C
|
||||
compiler?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: The copyright law doesn't give me copyright on output from the
|
||||
compiler, so it doesn't give me a way to say anything about that, and in
|
||||
fact I don't try to. I don't sympathize with people developing proprietary
|
||||
products with any compiler, but it doesn't seem especially useful to try to
|
||||
stop them from developing them with this compiler, so I am not going to.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Do your restrictions apply if people take pieces of your code to
|
||||
produce other things as well?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Yes, if they incorporate with changes any sizable piece. If it
|
||||
were two lines of code, that's nothing; copyright doesn't apply to that.
|
||||
Essentially, I have chosen these conditions so that first there is a
|
||||
copyright, which is what all the software hoarders use to stop everybody
|
||||
from doing anything, and then I add a notice giving up part of those
|
||||
rights. So the conditions talk only about the things that copyright applies
|
||||
to. I don't believe that the reason you should obey these conditions is
|
||||
because of the law. The reason you should obey is because an upright person
|
||||
when he distributes software encourages other people to share it further.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: In a sense you are enticing people into this mode of thinking by
|
||||
providing all of these interesting tools that they can use but only if they
|
||||
buy into your philosophy.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Yes. You could also see it as using the legal system that
|
||||
software hoarders have set up against them. I'm using it to protect the
|
||||
public from them.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Given that manufacturers haven't wanted to fund the project, who do
|
||||
you think will use the GNU system when it is done?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I have no idea, but it is not an important question. My purpose
|
||||
is to make it possible for people to reject the chains that come with
|
||||
proprietary software. I know that there are people who want to do that.
|
||||
Now, there may be others who don't care, but they are not my concern. I
|
||||
feel a bit sad for them and for the people that they influence. Right now a
|
||||
person who perceives the unpleasantness of the terms of proprietary
|
||||
software feels that he is stuck and has no alternative except not to use a
|
||||
computer. Well, I am going to give him a comfortable alternative.
|
||||
Other people may use the GNU system simply because it is technically
|
||||
superior. For example, my C compiler is producing about as good a code as I
|
||||
have seen from any C compiler. And GNU EMACS is generally regarded as being
|
||||
far superior to the commercial competition. And GNU EMACS was not funded by
|
||||
anyone either, but everyone is using it. I therefore think that many people
|
||||
will use the rest of the GNU system because of its technical advantages.
|
||||
But I would be doing a GNU system even if I didn't know how to make it
|
||||
technically better because I want it to be socially better. The GNU project
|
||||
is really a social project. It uses technical means to make a change in
|
||||
society.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Then it is fairly important to you that people adopt GNU. It is not
|
||||
just an academic exercise to produce this software to give it away to
|
||||
people. You hope it will change the way the software industry operates.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Yes. Some people say no one will ever use it because it doesn't
|
||||
have some attractive corporate logo on it, and other people say that they
|
||||
think it is tremendously important and everyone's going to want to use it.
|
||||
I have no way of knowing what is really going to happen. I don't know any
|
||||
other way to try to change the ugliness of the field that I find myself in,
|
||||
so this is what I have to do.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Can you address the implications? You obviously feel that this is an
|
||||
important political and social statement.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: It is a change. I'm trying to change the way people approach
|
||||
knowledge and information in general. I think that to try to own knowledge,
|
||||
to try to control whether people are allowed to use it, or to try to stop
|
||||
other people from sharing it, is sabotage. It is an activity that benefits
|
||||
the person that does it at the cost of impoverishing all of society. One
|
||||
person gains one dollar by destroying two dollars' worth of wealth. I think
|
||||
a person with a conscience wouldn't do that sort of thing except perhaps if
|
||||
he would otherwise die. And of course the people who do this are fairly
|
||||
rich; I can only conclude that they are unscrupulous. I would like to see
|
||||
people get rewards for writing free software and for encouraging other
|
||||
people to use it. I don't want to see people get rewards for writing
|
||||
proprietary software because that is not really a contribution to society.
|
||||
The principle of capitalism is the idea that people manage to make money by
|
||||
producing things and thereby are encouraged to do what is useful,
|
||||
automatically, so to speak. But that doesn't work when it comes to owning
|
||||
knowledge. They are encouraged to do not really what's useful, and what
|
||||
really is useful is not encouraged. I think it is important to say that
|
||||
information is different from material objects like cars and loaves of
|
||||
bread because people can copy it and share it on their own and, if nobody
|
||||
attempts to stop them, they can change it and make it better for
|
||||
themselves. That is a useful thing for people to do. This isn't true of
|
||||
loaves of bread. If you have one loaf of bread and you want another, you
|
||||
can't just put your loaf of bread into a bread copier. you can't make
|
||||
another one except by going through all the steps that were used to make
|
||||
the first one. It therefore is irrelevant whether people are permitted to
|
||||
copy it--it's impossible.
|
||||
Books were printed only on printing presses until recently. It was
|
||||
possible to make a copy yourself by hand, but it wasn't practical because
|
||||
it took so much more work than using a printing press. And it produced
|
||||
something so much less attractive that, for all intents and purposes, you
|
||||
could act as if it were impossible to make books except by mass producing
|
||||
them. And therefore copyright didn't really take any freedom away from the
|
||||
reading public. There wasn't anything that a book purchaser could do that
|
||||
was forbidden by copyright.
|
||||
But this isn't true for computer programs. It's also not true for tape
|
||||
cassettes. It's partly false now for books, but it is still true that for
|
||||
most books it is more expensive and certainly a lot more work to Xerox them
|
||||
than to buy a copy, and the result is still less attractive. Right now we
|
||||
are in a period where the situation that made copyright harmless and
|
||||
acceptable is changing to a situation where copyright will become
|
||||
destructive and intolerable. So the people who are slandered as "pirates"
|
||||
are in fact the people who are trying to do something useful that they have
|
||||
been forbidden to do. The copyright laws are entirely designed to help
|
||||
people take complete control over the use of some information for their own
|
||||
good. But they aren't designed to help people who want to make sure that
|
||||
the information is accessible to the public and stop others from depriving
|
||||
the public. I think that the law should recognize a class of works that are
|
||||
owned by the public, which is different from public domain in the same
|
||||
sense that a public park is different from something found in a garbage
|
||||
can. It's not there for anybody to take away, it's there for everyone to
|
||||
use but for no one to impede. Anybody in the public who finds himself being
|
||||
deprived of the derivative work of something owned by the public should be
|
||||
able to sue about it.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: But aren't pirates interested in getting copies of programs because
|
||||
they want to use those programs, not because they want to use that
|
||||
knowledge to produce something better?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I don't see that that's the important distinction. More people
|
||||
using a program means that the program contributes more to society. You
|
||||
have a loaf of bread that could be eaten either once or a million times.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Some users buy commercial software to obtain support. How does your
|
||||
distribution scheme provide support?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I suspect that those users are misled and are not thinking
|
||||
clearly. It is certainly useful to have support, but when they start
|
||||
thinking about how that has something to do with selling software or with
|
||||
the software being proprietary, at that point they are confusing
|
||||
themselves. There is no guarantee that proprietary software will receive
|
||||
good support. Simply because sellers say that they provide support, that
|
||||
doesn't mean it will be any good. And they may go out of business. In fact,
|
||||
people think that GNU EMACS has better support than commercial EMACSes. One
|
||||
of the reasons is that I'm probably a better hacker than the people who
|
||||
wrote the other EMACSes, but the other reason is that everyone has sources
|
||||
and there are so many people interested in figuring out how to do things
|
||||
with it that you don't have to get your support from me. Even just the free
|
||||
support that consists of my fixing bugs people report to me and
|
||||
incorporating that in the next release has given people a good level of
|
||||
support. You can always hire somebody to solve a problem for you, and when
|
||||
the software is free you have a competitive market for the support. You can
|
||||
hire anybody. I distribute a service list with EMACS, a list of people's
|
||||
names and phone numbers and what they charge to provide support.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Do you collect their bug fixes?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Well, they send them to me. I asked all the people who wanted to
|
||||
be listed to promise that they would never ask any of their customers to
|
||||
keep secret whatever they were told or any changes they were given to the
|
||||
GNU software as part of that support.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: So you can't have people competing to provide support based on their
|
||||
knowing the solution to some problem that somebody else doesn't know.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: No. They can compete based on their being clever and more likely
|
||||
to find the solution to your problem, or their already understanding more
|
||||
of the common problems, or knowing better how to explain to you what you
|
||||
should do. These are all ways they can compete. They can try to do better,
|
||||
but they cannot actively impede their competitors.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: I suppose it's like buying a car. You're not forced to go back to the
|
||||
original manufacturer for support or continued maintenance.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Or buying a house--what would it be like if the only person who
|
||||
could ever fix problems with your house was the contractor who built it
|
||||
originally? That is the kind of imposition that's involved in proprietary
|
||||
software. People tell me about a problem that happens in UNIX. Because
|
||||
manufacturers sell improved versions of UNIX, they tend to collect fixes
|
||||
and not give them out except in binaries. The result is that the bugs don't
|
||||
really get fixed.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: They're all duplicating effort trying to solve bugs independently.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Yes. Here is another point that helps put the problem of
|
||||
proprietary information in a social perspective. Think about the liability
|
||||
insurance crisis. In order to get any compensation from society, an injured
|
||||
person has to hire a lawyer and split the money with that lawyer. This is a
|
||||
stupid and inefficient way of helping out people who are victims of
|
||||
accidents. And consider all the time that people put into hustling to take
|
||||
business away from their competition. Think of the pens that are packaged
|
||||
in large cardboard packages that cost more than the pen--just to make sure
|
||||
that the pen isn't stolen. Wouldn't it be better if we just put free pens
|
||||
on every street corner? And think of all the toll booths that impede the
|
||||
flow of traffic. It's a gigantic social phenomenon. People find ways of
|
||||
getting money by impeding society. Once they can impede society, they can
|
||||
be paid to leave people alone. The waste inherent in owning information
|
||||
will become more and more important and will ultimately make the difference
|
||||
between the utopia in which nobody really has to work for a living because
|
||||
it's all done by robots and a world just like ours where everyone spends
|
||||
much time replicating what the next fellow is doing.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Like typing in copyright notices on the software.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: More like policing everyone to make sure that they don't have
|
||||
forbidden copies of anything and duplicating all the work people have
|
||||
already done because it is proprietary.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: A cynic might wonder how you earn your living.
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: From consulting. When I do consulting, I always reserve the right
|
||||
to give away what I wrote for the consulting job. Also, I could be making
|
||||
my living by mailing copies of the free software that I wrote and some that
|
||||
other people wrote. Lots of people send in $150 for GNU EMACS, but now this
|
||||
money goes to the Free Software Foundation that I started. The foundation
|
||||
doesn't pay me a salary because it would be a conflict of interest.
|
||||
Instead, it hires other people to work on GNU. As long as I can go on
|
||||
making a living by consulting I think that's the best way.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: What is currently included in the official GNU distribution tape?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Right now the tape contains GNU EMACS (one version fits all
|
||||
computers); Bison, a program that replaces YACC; MIT Scheme, which is
|
||||
Professor Sussman's super-simplified dialect of LISP; and Hack, a
|
||||
dungeon-exploring game similar to Rogue.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: Does the printed manual come with the tape as well?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: No. Printed manuals cost $15 each or copy them yourself. Copy
|
||||
this interview and share it, too.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: How can you get a copy of that?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: Write to the Free Software Foundation, 675 Massachusetts Ave.,
|
||||
Cambridge, MA 02139.
|
||||
|
||||
[In June 1995, this address changed to:
|
||||
Free Software Foundation
|
||||
59 Temple Place - Suite 330
|
||||
Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA
|
||||
Voice: +1-617-542-5942
|
||||
Fax: +1-617-542-2652
|
||||
-gnu@prep.ai.mit.edu
|
||||
]
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: What are you going to do when you are done with the GNU system?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I'm not sure. Sometimes I think that what I'll go on to do is the
|
||||
same thing in other areas of software.
|
||||
|
||||
BYTE: So this is just the first of a whole series of assaults on the
|
||||
software industry?
|
||||
|
||||
Stallman: I hope so. But perhaps what I'll do is just live a life of ease
|
||||
working a little bit of the time just to live. I don't have to live
|
||||
expensively. The rest of the time I can find interesting people to hang
|
||||
around with or learn to do things that I don't know how to do.
|
||||
|
||||
Editorial Note: BYTE holds the right to provide this interview on BIX but
|
||||
will not interfere with its distribution.
|
||||
|
||||
Richard Stallman, 545 Technology Square, Room 703, Cambridge, MA 02139.
|
||||
Copyright (C) 1986 Richard Stallman. Permission is granted to make and
|
||||
distribute copies of this article as long as the copyright and this notice
|
||||
appear on all copies.
|
||||
114
etc/LINUX-GNU
Normal file
114
etc/LINUX-GNU
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
|
|||
Linux and the GNU system
|
||||
|
||||
The GNU project started 12 years ago with the goal of developing a
|
||||
complete free Unix-like operating system. "Free" refers to freedom,
|
||||
not price; it means you are free to run, copy, distribute, study,
|
||||
change, and improve the software.
|
||||
|
||||
A Unix-like system consists of many different programs. We found some
|
||||
components already available as free software--for example, X Windows
|
||||
and TeX. We obtained other components by helping to convince their
|
||||
developers to make them free--for example, the Berkeley network
|
||||
utilities. Other components we wrote specifically for GNU--for
|
||||
example, GNU Emacs, the GNU C compiler, the GNU C library, Bash, and
|
||||
Ghostscript. The components in this last category are "GNU software".
|
||||
The GNU system consists of all three categories together.
|
||||
|
||||
The GNU project is not just about developing and distributing some
|
||||
useful free software. The heart of the GNU project is an idea: that
|
||||
software should be free, and that the users' freedom is worth
|
||||
defending. For if people have freedom but do not consciously
|
||||
appreciate it, they will not keep it for long. If we want to make
|
||||
freedom last, we need to call people's attention to the freedoms they
|
||||
have in free software.
|
||||
|
||||
The GNU project's method is that free software and the idea of users'
|
||||
freedom support each other. We develop GNU software, and as people
|
||||
encounter GNU programs or the GNU system and start to use them, they
|
||||
also think about the GNU idea. The software shows that the idea can
|
||||
work in practice. Some of these people come to agree with the idea,
|
||||
and then they are more likely to write additional free software.
|
||||
Thus, the software embodies the idea, spreads the idea, and grows from
|
||||
the idea.
|
||||
|
||||
By 1992, we had found or written all of the essential major components
|
||||
of the system except the kernel, which we were writing. (This kernel
|
||||
consists of the Mach microkernel plus the GNU HURD. Currently it is
|
||||
running but not ready for users. The first test release was made in
|
||||
1996.)
|
||||
|
||||
Then the Linux kernel became available. Linux is a free
|
||||
Unix-compatible kernel initially written by Linus Torvalds. It was
|
||||
not written for the GNU project, but Linux and the almost-complete GNU
|
||||
system made a useful combination. This combination provided all the
|
||||
major essential components of a Unix-compatible operating system, and
|
||||
with some work, people made it into a usable system. It was a variant
|
||||
GNU system, based on the Linux kernel.
|
||||
|
||||
Ironically, the popularity of these systems undermines our method of
|
||||
communicating the GNU idea to people who use GNU. These systems are
|
||||
mostly the same as the GNU system--the main difference being the
|
||||
choice of kernel. But people usually call them "Linux systems". At
|
||||
first impression, a "Linux system" sounds like something completely
|
||||
distinct from the "GNU system," and that is what most users think it
|
||||
is.
|
||||
|
||||
Most introductions to the "Linux system" acknowledge the role played
|
||||
by the GNU software components. But they don't say that the system as
|
||||
a whole is a modified version of the GNU system that the GNU project
|
||||
has been developing and compiling since 1984. They don't say that the
|
||||
goal of a free Unix-like system like this one came from the GNU
|
||||
project. So most users don't know these things.
|
||||
|
||||
Since human beings tend to correct their first impressions less than
|
||||
subsequent information calls for, those users who later learn about
|
||||
the relationship between these systems and the GNU project still often
|
||||
underestimate it.
|
||||
|
||||
This leads many users to identify themselves as a separate community
|
||||
of "Linux users", distinct from the GNU user community. They use all
|
||||
of the GNU software; in fact, they use almost all of the GNU system;
|
||||
but they don't think of themselves as GNU users, and often they don't
|
||||
think that the GNU idea relates to them.
|
||||
|
||||
It leads to other problems as well--even hampering cooperation on
|
||||
software maintenance. Normally when users change a GNU program to
|
||||
make it work better on a particular system, they send the change to
|
||||
the maintainer of that program; then they work with the maintainer,
|
||||
explaining the change, arguing for it, and sometimes rewriting it for
|
||||
the sake of the overall coherence and maintainability of the package,
|
||||
to get the patch installed.
|
||||
|
||||
But people who think of themselves as "Linux users" are more likely to
|
||||
release a forked "Linux-only" version of the GNU program, and consider
|
||||
the job done. We want each and every GNU program to work "out of the
|
||||
box" on Linux-based systems; but if the users do not help, that goal
|
||||
becomes much harder to achieve.
|
||||
|
||||
How should the GNU project deal with this problem? What should we do
|
||||
now to spread the idea that freedom for computer users is important?
|
||||
|
||||
We should continue to talk about the freedom to share and change
|
||||
software--and to teach other users to value these freedoms. If we
|
||||
enjoy having a free operating system, it makes sense for us to think
|
||||
about preserving those freedoms for the long term. If we enjoy having
|
||||
a variety of free software, it makes sense for to think about
|
||||
encouraging others to write additional free software, instead of
|
||||
additional proprietary software.
|
||||
|
||||
We should not accept the idea of two separate communities for GNU and
|
||||
Linux. Instead we should spread understanding that "Linux systems"
|
||||
are variants of the GNU system, and that the users of these systems
|
||||
are GNU users as well as Linux users (users of the Linux kernel).
|
||||
Users who know this will naturally tend to take a look at the GNU
|
||||
philosophy which brought these systems into existence.
|
||||
|
||||
I've written this article as one way of doing that. Another way is to
|
||||
use the terms "Linux-based GNU system" or "GNU/Linux system", instead
|
||||
of "Linux system," when you write about or mention such a system.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Copyright 1996 Richard Stallman
|
||||
Verbatim copying and redistribution is permitted
|
||||
without royalty as long as this notice is preserved.
|
||||
|
||||
1523
etc/MAILINGLISTS
Normal file
1523
etc/MAILINGLISTS
Normal file
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load diff
176
etc/MOTIVATION
Normal file
176
etc/MOTIVATION
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
|
|||
STUDIES FIND REWARD OFTEN NO MOTIVATOR
|
||||
|
||||
Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain
|
||||
|
||||
By Alfie Kohn
|
||||
Special to the Boston Globe
|
||||
[reprinted with permission of the author
|
||||
from the Monday 19 January 1987 Boston Globe]
|
||||
|
||||
In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top
|
||||
students get A's, and in the factory or office the best workers get
|
||||
raises. It's an article of faith for most of us that rewards promote
|
||||
better performance.
|
||||
|
||||
But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as
|
||||
ironclad as was once thought. Psychologists have been finding that
|
||||
rewards can lower performance levels, especially when the performance
|
||||
involves creativity.
|
||||
|
||||
A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task -
|
||||
the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake - typically
|
||||
declines when someone is rewarded for doing it.
|
||||
|
||||
If a reward - money, awards, praise, or winning a contest - comes to
|
||||
be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, that activity
|
||||
will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right.
|
||||
|
||||
With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence
|
||||
of intrinsic motivation, these conclusions are now widely accepted
|
||||
among psychologists. Taken together, they suggest we may unwittingly
|
||||
be squelching interest and discouraging innovation among workers,
|
||||
students and artists.
|
||||
|
||||
The recognition that rewards can have counter-productive effects is
|
||||
based on a variety of studies, which have come up with such findings
|
||||
as these: Young children who are rewarded for drawing are less likely
|
||||
to draw on their own that are children who draw just for the fun of
|
||||
it. Teenagers offered rewards for playing word games enjoy the games
|
||||
less and do not do as well as those who play with no rewards.
|
||||
Employees who are praised for meeting a manager's expectations suffer
|
||||
a drop in motivation.
|
||||
|
||||
Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed
|
||||
by Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis
|
||||
University. In a paper published early last year on her most recent
|
||||
study, she reported on experiments involving elementary school and
|
||||
college students. Both groups were asked to make "silly" collages.
|
||||
The young children were also asked to invent stories.
|
||||
|
||||
The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done
|
||||
by those students who had contracted for rewards. "It may be that
|
||||
commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is
|
||||
done out of pure interest," Amabile said.
|
||||
|
||||
In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston
|
||||
University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of
|
||||
extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers,
|
||||
making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think
|
||||
about their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were
|
||||
given a list of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with
|
||||
words, satisfaction from self-expression, and so forth. A third group
|
||||
was not given any list. All were then asked to do more writing.
|
||||
|
||||
The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only
|
||||
wrote less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent
|
||||
poets, but the quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards,
|
||||
Amabile says, have this destructive effect primarily with creative
|
||||
tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. "The more complex the
|
||||
activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward," she said.
|
||||
|
||||
But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones
|
||||
affected.
|
||||
|
||||
In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger
|
||||
children much less effectively if they were promised free movie
|
||||
tickets for teaching well. The study, by James Gabarino, now
|
||||
president of Chicago's Erikson Institute for Advanced Studies in Child
|
||||
Development, showed that tutors working for the reward took longer to
|
||||
communicate ideas, got frustrated more easily, and did a poorer job in
|
||||
the end than those who were not rewarded.
|
||||
|
||||
Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is
|
||||
an effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also
|
||||
challenge the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely
|
||||
to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research "definitely
|
||||
refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly conditioned."
|
||||
|
||||
But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the
|
||||
University of Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean
|
||||
behaviorism itself has been invalidated. "The basic principles of
|
||||
reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted context"
|
||||
- restricted, that is, to tasks that are not especially interesting.
|
||||
|
||||
Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings
|
||||
about rewards and performance.
|
||||
|
||||
First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it
|
||||
as quickly as possible and to take few risks. "If they feel that
|
||||
'this is something I hve to get through to get the prize,' the're
|
||||
going to be less creative," Amabile said.
|
||||
|
||||
Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the
|
||||
reward. They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with
|
||||
performance. "To the extent one's experience of being
|
||||
self-determined is limited," said Richard Ryan, associate psychology
|
||||
professor at the University of Rochester, "one's creativity will be
|
||||
reduced as well."
|
||||
|
||||
Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who
|
||||
see themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success
|
||||
find their tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as
|
||||
well.
|
||||
|
||||
The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the
|
||||
University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that
|
||||
"money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an activity"
|
||||
on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his colleagues
|
||||
demonstrated that trying to best others has the same effect. Students
|
||||
who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those who
|
||||
were not competing to keep working at it once the experiment was over.
|
||||
|
||||
Control plays role
|
||||
|
||||
There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the
|
||||
same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment -
|
||||
similar to an hourly wage in the workplace - usually does not reduce
|
||||
intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are based on
|
||||
performing a given task or doing a good job at it - analogous to
|
||||
piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively - that the problem
|
||||
develops.
|
||||
|
||||
The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to
|
||||
view ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find
|
||||
that activity worth doing in its own right.
|
||||
|
||||
There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An
|
||||
elderly man, harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally
|
||||
devises a scheme. He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would
|
||||
all return Tuesday and yell their insults again. They did so eagerly
|
||||
and received the money, but he told them he could only pay 25 cents on
|
||||
Wednesday. When they returned, insulted him again and collected their
|
||||
quarters, he informed them that Thursday's rate would be just a penny.
|
||||
"Forget it," they said - and never taunted him again.
|
||||
|
||||
Means to and end
|
||||
|
||||
In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any
|
||||
task, no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it
|
||||
were presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of
|
||||
preschoolers they could not engage in one activity they liked until
|
||||
they first took part in another. Although they had enjoyed both
|
||||
activities equally, the children came to dislike the task that was a
|
||||
prerequisite for the other.
|
||||
|
||||
It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced
|
||||
as controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of
|
||||
payment. In a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who
|
||||
were told, "Good, you're doing as you /should/" were "significantly
|
||||
less intrinsically motivated than those who received feedback
|
||||
informationally."
|
||||
|
||||
There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, "I'm giving you this
|
||||
reward because I recognize the value of your work" and "You're getting
|
||||
this reward because you've lived up to my standards."
|
||||
|
||||
A different but related set of problems exists in the case of
|
||||
creativity. Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile
|
||||
emphasizes that "the negative impact on creativity of working for
|
||||
rewards can be minimized" by playing down the significance of these
|
||||
rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative
|
||||
work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to
|
||||
happen.
|
||||
|
||||
/Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of "No Contest: The
|
||||
Case Against Competition," recently published by Houghton Mifflin Co.,
|
||||
Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. /
|
||||
4157
etc/ORDERS
Normal file
4157
etc/ORDERS
Normal file
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load diff
203
etc/ORDERS.EUROPE
Normal file
203
etc/ORDERS.EUROPE
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,203 @@
|
|||
Order form for GNU Distribution Europe, Belgium.
|
||||
Prices as of July 1998, and may change without notice.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Sportstraat 28 Fax : +32-9-2224976
|
||||
9000 Gent Phone : +32-9-2227542
|
||||
Belgium
|
||||
europe-order@gnu.org
|
||||
|
||||
GNU Distribution Europe, Belgium sells GNU CD-ROMs, manuals and
|
||||
t-shirts in Europe on behalf of the Free Software Foundation.
|
||||
Ordering from GNU Distribution Europe, Belgium supports the GNU
|
||||
project just like ordering from the Free Software Foundation, but
|
||||
offers people in Europe additional convenient payment methods and a
|
||||
lower overall price.
|
||||
|
||||
To order a Deluxe Distribution, please contact the FSF directly.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
CD-ROMs, in ISO 9660 format
|
||||
|
||||
GNU Source Code CD-ROMs, Version 11 (March 1998) with X11R6.3:
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 9750 BEF = ______ BEF for corporations and other organizations.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 2550 BEF = ______ BEF for individuals.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU Compiler Tools Binaries CD-ROM, Version 5 (March 1998) Edition:
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 8950 BEF = ______ BEF for corporations and other organizations.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 2350 BEF = ______ BEF for individuals.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Manuals
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 950 BEF = ______ BEF Programming in Emacs Lisp: An Introduction.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 950 BEF = ______ BEF Debugging with GDB, with a reference card.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 1150 BEF = ______ BEF GAWK: GNU Awk User's Guide.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 950 BEF = ______ BEF Make manual.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 950 BEF = ______ BEF Bison manual, with a reference card.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 950 BEF = ______ BEF Flex manual, with a reference card.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 1150 BEF = ______ BEF Texinfo manual.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 750 BEF = ______ BEF Termcap manual.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 1400 BEF = ______ BEF GNU Emacs manual, with a reference card.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 2650 BEF = ______ BEF GNU Emacs Lisp Reference manual.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 2250 BEF = ______ BEF Using and Porting GNU CC.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 2250 BEF = ______ BEF GNU C Library Reference Manual.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 2300 BEF = ______ BEF GNU Emacs Calc manual, with a reference card.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Reference Cards
|
||||
|
||||
The following reference cards, in packets of ten. For single copies please
|
||||
contact us.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 500 BEF = ______ BEF GNU Emacs version 20 reference cards.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 500 BEF = ______ BEF GNU Emacs Calc reference cards.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 500 BEF = ______ BEF GDB reference cards.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 500 BEF = ______ BEF Bison reference cards.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 500 BEF = ______ BEF Flex reference cards.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T-shirts
|
||||
|
||||
We have made new T-shirts for 1998. The front contains the typing gnu
|
||||
from our first T-shirt; the back has the preamble to the GNU General
|
||||
Public License.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU/FSF T-shirts are thick 100% cotton in sizes: L, XL, XXL (they run
|
||||
small) in colors: black, burgundy, blue-green, natural (off-white).
|
||||
The sizes S and M are available in black and natural (off-white).
|
||||
Size XXXL is avaiable in black only. Please list 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
|
||||
choice of color.
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 800 BEF = ______ BEF Size _____
|
||||
|
||||
Color choice: 1st _______ 2nd _______ 3rd _______
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 800 BEF = ______ BEF Size _____
|
||||
|
||||
Color choice: 1st _______ 2nd _______ 3rd _______
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 800 BEF = ______ BEF Size _____
|
||||
|
||||
Color choice: 1st _______ 2nd _______ 3rd _______
|
||||
|
||||
____ @ 800 BEF = ______ BEF Size _____
|
||||
|
||||
Color choice: 1st _______ 2nd _______ 3rd _______
|
||||
|
||||
======
|
||||
Subtotal ______ BEF
|
||||
|
||||
Tax and Shipping Costs
|
||||
|
||||
+ ______ BEF For addresses in Belgium: add 21% sales tax
|
||||
or give tax exempt number.
|
||||
+ ______ BEF Shipping fee for other E.U. countries:
|
||||
150 BEF extra for addresses outside Belgium.
|
||||
For shipments to Italy, please add an
|
||||
additional 200 BEF (350 BEF total).
|
||||
+ ______ BEF C.O.D. fee (if you want C.O.D. shipping),
|
||||
500 BEF.
|
||||
+ ______ BEF Donation to Free Software Foundation
|
||||
|
||||
======
|
||||
TOTAL ______ BEF
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Note: The shipping fee for foreign destinations covers registered
|
||||
mail. Registered mail normally takes 4 to 5 days to arrive. If you
|
||||
would like shipping via air mail, or via courier, please contact GNU
|
||||
Distribution Europe, Belgium for a price quote.
|
||||
|
||||
These prices are subject to change without notice. In particular, they
|
||||
will very likely change if the exchange rate from USD to BEF changes
|
||||
significantly.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Shipping Information
|
||||
|
||||
Name: ________________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Mail Stop/Dept. Name: ________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Organization: ________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Street Address: ______________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
City, State/Province: ________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Zip Code/Postal Code Country: ________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Telephone number in case of a problem with your order. _______________________
|
||||
|
||||
Fax number. __________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
E-mail Address: ______________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Payment can be made by Euro-cheque, credit card, bank transfer, or
|
||||
wire-transfer in Belgian Francs. Credit card transactions will be run
|
||||
by the Free Software Foundation at their office in the United States.
|
||||
If you wish to pay by wire transfer, please contact us.
|
||||
Please do not send cash through the mail; neither GNU Distribution
|
||||
Europe -- Belgium nor the post office is responsible if the cash is
|
||||
lost or stolen.
|
||||
________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
For Credit Card Orders Only :
|
||||
|
||||
The Free Software Foundation takes these credit cards: Carte Blanche,
|
||||
Diner's Club, Discover, JCB, MasterCard, Visa, and American Express.
|
||||
Please note that we are charged about 5% of an order's total amount
|
||||
in credit card processing fees. Please consider paying by check
|
||||
instead, or adding on a 5% donation to make up the difference. To
|
||||
place a credit card order, please give us this information:
|
||||
|
||||
Card type: ____________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Account Number: _______________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Expiration Date: ______________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Cardholder's Signature: _______________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Cardholder's Name: ____________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Do not send your credit card number in email! It might be intercepted
|
||||
and used by someone else. Please use telephone, fax, or snail mail to
|
||||
send credit card orders.
|
||||
________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
We do not have the staff to handle the billing of unpaid orders, so
|
||||
please include your payment with your order. If your order arrives
|
||||
without payment, we will return it to you.
|
||||
|
||||
If you are a retail store, and want a retailer's discount, please
|
||||
contact the FSF.
|
||||
|
||||
For orders from outside Belgium:
|
||||
|
||||
You are responsible for paying all taxes. If you refuse to pay the
|
||||
applicable taxes of your country, the shipper will return the order.
|
||||
|
||||
Bank P.C. : 000-1699992-67 V.A.T. : B.E-586.981.246 HRG : 181.641
|
||||
213
etc/ORDERS.JAPAN
Normal file
213
etc/ORDERS.JAPAN
Normal file
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
|
|||
GNU ORDER FORM FOR JAPAN
|
||||
|
||||
Prices and contents may change without notice after July 31, 1998.
|
||||
|
||||
Item Unit Price Quantity Item Price
|
||||
---------------------------------------- ---------- -------- ----------
|
||||
* indicates New or Substantially Updated items.
|
||||
|
||||
* Compiler Tools Binaries CD-ROM March '98 Y32,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Edition, Version 5, if a corporation or other
|
||||
organization is ultimately paying.
|
||||
|
||||
* Compiler Tools Binaries CD-ROM March '98 Y8,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Edition, Version 5, if an individual is
|
||||
ultimately paying.
|
||||
|
||||
* Source Code CD-ROM March '98 Edition, Y35,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Version 11, with X11R6.3, if a corporation or
|
||||
other organization is ultimately paying.
|
||||
|
||||
* Source Code CD-ROM March '98 Edition, Y8,700 ________ __________
|
||||
Version 11, with X11R6.3, if an individual is
|
||||
ultimately paying.
|
||||
|
||||
Source Code CD-ROM November '93 Edition, Y12,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Version 3 (last with X11R5), if a corporation or other
|
||||
organization is ultimately paying (while supplies last).
|
||||
|
||||
Source Code CD-ROM November '93 Edition, Y3,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Version 3 (last with X11R5), if an individual
|
||||
is ultimately paying (while supplies last).
|
||||
|
||||
Subscription to next four editions of the Y125,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Compiler Tools Binaries CD-ROMs.
|
||||
|
||||
Subscription to next four editions of the Y125,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Source Code CD-ROMs.
|
||||
|
||||
* GNU Software for MS-DOS and MS-Windows Y20,000 ________ __________
|
||||
(CD-ROM and book) if a corporation or other
|
||||
organization is ultimately paying.
|
||||
|
||||
* GNU Software for MS-DOS and MS-Windows Y5,000 ________ __________
|
||||
(CD-ROM and book) if an individual is ultimately paying.
|
||||
|
||||
* Emacs manual, with reference card Y4,500 ________ __________
|
||||
(Edition 13 for Version 20.1)
|
||||
|
||||
Programming in Emacs Lisp, An Introduction Y3,000 ________ __________
|
||||
(Edition 1.04)
|
||||
|
||||
Emacs Lisp Reference manual Y7,500 ________ __________
|
||||
(Edition 2.4 for Version 19.29)
|
||||
|
||||
Emacs Lisp Reference, Japanese Edition manual Y8,500 ________ __________
|
||||
(Japanese DRAFT Revision 1.0, Dec 1996,
|
||||
from English Edition 2.4 for Version 19.29)
|
||||
|
||||
Emacs Calc manual, with reference card Y7,500 ________ __________
|
||||
(Edition 2.02 for Version 2.02)
|
||||
|
||||
Using and Porting GNU CC manual Y7,100 ________ __________
|
||||
(August 1996 Edition for Version 2.7.2)
|
||||
|
||||
GNU C Library Reference manual Y7,500 ________ __________
|
||||
(Edition 0.06 for Version 1.09)
|
||||
|
||||
Debugging with GDB manual, with reference card Y3,000 ________ __________
|
||||
(for GDB version 4.16)
|
||||
|
||||
Make manual (Edition 0.50 for Version 3.75) Y3,000 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
Bison manual, with reference card Y2,900 ________ __________
|
||||
(November 1995 Edition for Version 1.25)
|
||||
|
||||
Flex manual, with reference card Y2,900 ________ __________
|
||||
(Edition 1.03 for Version 2.3.7)
|
||||
|
||||
* GAWK: GNU Awk User's Guide (Edition 2 for Ver 3) Y4,500 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
* Texinfo manual (Edition 3 for Version 3.11) Y3,700 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
Termcap manual (Third Edition for Version 1.3) Y2,200 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Packet of ten Emacs 20 reference cards Y1,500 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
Packet of ten Emacs 18 reference cards Y1,500 ________ __________
|
||||
(while supplies last)
|
||||
|
||||
Packet of ten GDB reference cards Y1,500 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
Packet of ten Emacs Calc reference cards Y1,500 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
Packet of ten Bison reference cards Y1,500 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
Packet of ten Flex reference cards Y1,500 ________ __________
|
||||
|
||||
FSF T-shirt (size S) Y4,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Color: Black, Natural (circle)
|
||||
|
||||
FSF T-shirt (size M) Y4,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Color: Black, Natural (circle)
|
||||
|
||||
FSF T-shirt (size L) Y4,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Color: Black, Natural, Burgundy, Blue-Green (circle)
|
||||
|
||||
FSF T-shirt (size XL) Y4,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Color: Black, Natural, Burgundy, Blue-Green (circle)
|
||||
|
||||
FSF T-shirt (size XXL) Y4,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Color: Black, Natural, Burgundy, Blue-Green (circle)
|
||||
|
||||
FSF T-shirt (size XXL) Y4,000 ________ __________
|
||||
Color: Black
|
||||
|
||||
Shipping Y2,000
|
||||
|
||||
Optional donation--help the FSF write more free software! __________
|
||||
|
||||
Total __________
|
||||
|
||||
The following is your shipping label. Please write clearly using Romaji.
|
||||
All orders must be prepaid. See the next page for payment instructions.
|
||||
|
||||
Name: ___________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Company: ________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Address: ________________________________________________________________
|
||||
|
||||
Please also provide the following information in case there is a problem
|
||||
with your order.
|
||||
|
||||
Telephone: ________________ Fax: ________________ E-mail: _________________
|
||||
|
||||
____ Please add my name to the mailing list for future FSF events in Japan.
|
||||
I prefer to be notified by: ______ fax _____ e-mail
|
||||
|
||||
____ Please send me information regarding the GNU corporate Deluxe
|
||||
software and documentation package.
|
||||
|
||||
____ My company is interested in becoming a corporate sponsor of the FSF.
|
||||
|
||||
____ I am interested in working as a volunteer for the FSF.
|
||||
|
||||
Prices and contents may change without notice after July 31, 1998.
|
||||
|
||||
Version: March 1998 ASCII etc/ORDERS.JAPAN
|
||||
|
||||
Free Software Foundation FAX 001-1-617-542-2652
|
||||
59 Temple Place - Suite 330 Voice 001-1-617-542-5942
|
||||
Boston, MA 02111-1307 E-mail gnu@gnu.org
|
||||
U.S.A.
|
||||
|
||||
GNU ORDER FORM ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS
|
||||
|
||||
Please do not fax this page.
|
||||
|
||||
You can fax your order directly to 001-1-617-542-2652. Questions can be
|
||||
sent to fsforder@gnu.org. Orders may also be sent by ordinary mail to:
|
||||
|
||||
Free Software Foundation
|
||||
59 Temple Place - Suite 330
|
||||
Boston, MA 02111-1307
|
||||
U.S.A.
|
||||
|
||||
Orders must be prepaid by credit card or by bank transfer. Credit Cards we
|
||||
accept are JCB, Visa, MasterCard, Discover, Diner's Club, Carte Blanche, and
|
||||
American Express. Please provide your card type, expiration date, account
|
||||
number, and signature. Bank transfers should be made to this account:
|
||||
|
||||
Bank: Sanwa Bank
|
||||
Branch: Azabu Branch (#620)
|
||||
Account name: Free Software Foundation
|
||||
Account number: 3683216
|
||||
|
||||
Prices and contents may change without notice after July 31, 1998. Software
|
||||
and documentation is distributed with permission to copy, to modify, and to
|
||||
redistribute. Texinfo source for each manual is on the Source Code CD-ROM.
|
||||
We will ship the latest version of each manual, unless you say otherwise.
|
||||
|
||||
The minimum order amount (before postage) is Y5,000. The FSF regrets that it
|
||||
cannot fill orders for smaller amounts. Please contact the FSF directly by
|
||||
telephone at 001-1-617-542-5942 or by fax at 001-1-617-542-2652 prior to
|
||||
placing any orders for greater than Y500,000.
|
||||
|
||||
The FSF offers a "Deluxe" package to Japanese corporations which consists of
|
||||
source code in your preferred format, a set of custom binaries for your
|
||||
preferred architecture and operating system, and a complete set of printed
|
||||
documentation (books and reference cards). Purchasers of the corporate
|
||||
deluxe package will also receive invitations to future private presentations
|
||||
conducted by Richard Stallman in Japan. The price for the corporate deluxe
|
||||
package is Y1,000,000. For more information, contact the FSF directly.
|
||||
|
||||
If you need more information about the FSF and it offerings, please consult
|
||||
the Japanese edition of the March 1998 GNU's Bulletin. If you do not have a
|
||||
copy of the Japanese edition of the GNU's Bulletin, please contact the FSF.
|
||||
|
||||
Richard Stallman regrets that he cannot autograph items ordered by mail.
|
||||
If time permits, he will autograph items at speaking engagements.
|
||||
|
||||
All sales are final.
|
||||
|
||||
Prices and contents may change without notice after July 31, 1998.
|
||||
|
||||
For use in Japan only.
|
||||
|
||||
Free Software Foundation
|
||||
59 Temple Place - Suite 330
|
||||
Boston, MA 02111-1307
|
||||
U.S.A.
|
||||
http://www.gnu.org
|
||||
1285
etc/SERVICE
Normal file
1285
etc/SERVICE
Normal file
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load diff
9888
etc/termcap.src
Normal file
9888
etc/termcap.src
Normal file
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load diff
Loading…
Add table
Reference in a new issue